Best Deicer Types and How to Use

The best deicer is the non-chemical backbreaking solution... the snow shovel. However, proper use of a chemical deicer can ease your battle with snow and ice. Note that proper use is key, since a big issue with deicers is that they are used incorrectly. You want to use the minimum amount of product needed to loosen the snow or ice and then remove it with a shovel or plow, not cover the surface with deicer and wait for the salt to completely melt the snow or ice. Which product you use depends on your specific needs. Key Takeaways: Best De-Icer Solutions There are many de-icing products. Each product offers advantages and disadvantages. Considerations include cost, environmental effects, and temperature.Some products are ineffective at extremely low temperatures.In order to any product to work, a tiny amount of melted water is necessary. In the past, regular table salt salt or sodium chloride was the usual choice for deicing roads and sidewalks. Now there are several deicer options, so you can choose the best deicer for your situation. The Transportation Research Board offers a tool to help you compare 42 deicer options based on price, environmental impact, temperature limit for melting snow or ice, and the infrastructure needed to use the product. For personal home or business use, youll probably see only a few different products on the market, so heres a summary of some of the pros and cons of the common deicers: Sodium chloride (rock salt or halite) Sodium chloride is inexpensive and helps keep moisture from accumulating on roads and walkways, but it is not an effective deicer at low temperatures [only good down to -9Â °C (15Â °F)], damages concrete, poisons the soil, and can kill plants and harm pets. Calcium chloride Calcium chloride works at very low temperatures and isnt as damaging to the soil and vegetation as sodium chloride, though it costs a bit more and may damage concrete. Calcium chloride attracts moisture, so it wont keep surfaces as dry as many other products. On the other hand, attracting moisture can be a good quality since calcium chloride releases heat when it reacts with water, so it can melt snow and ice on contact. All deicers must be in solution (liquid) in order to start working; calcium chloride can attract its own solvent. Magnesium chloride can do this too, though it isnt used as commonly as a deicer. Safe Paw This is an amide/glycol mixture rather than a salt. It is supposed to be safer for plants and pets than salt-based deicers, though I dont know much about it otherwise, except that it is more expensive than salt. Potassium chloride Potassium chloride doesnt work at extremely low temperatures and may cost a little more than sodium chloride, but it is relatively kind to vegetation and concrete. Corn-based products These products (e.g., Safe Walk) contain chlorides and work in very low temperatures, yet are supposed to be safe for yards and pets. They are expensive. CMA or calcium magnesium acetate CMA is safe for concrete and plants, but it is only good down to the same temperature as sodium chloride. CMA is better at preventing water from re-freezing than at melting snow and ice. CMA tends to leave a slush, which may be undesirable for sidewalks or driveways. Deicer Summary As you would imagine, calcium chloride is a popular low-temperature deicer. Potassium chloride is a popular warmer-winter choice. Many deicers are mixtures of different salts so that you get some of the advantages and disadvantages of each chemical. If you live in an area that gets snow and ice, your local hardware store likely offers good solutions. The obvious advantages of buying products at stores include supporting your local economy and saving some money on shipping. If you shop online, shipping may be free, but its likely included in the price in one way or another. Household Products That Work In a pinch, you can use common household products as de-icing agents. Basically, any product that contains salt or sugar will work. Examples include liquid from a pickle jar, sugary soft drinks, or a homemade solution of salt or sugar in water.

Nonverbal Observation - 1549 Words

Observations of Nonverbal Communications Between Two Strangers Charlie Steward University of Alaska Anchorage Fundamentals of Oral Communications Fall 2017 Professor Peyton Introduction When most of us think about communication, many of us immediately imagine ourselves talking to someone or writing them a message. Most of us do not actively think about the equally or more likely, much more important nonverbal cues that are very much a part of how people perceive our chosen messages. The main types of nonverbal communication cues that I focused on while I was observing my subjects were: †¢ Kinesics, the gestures we make or how we move about when we are communicating. †¢ Haptics, the way we interpret things physically. †¢ Appearance,†¦show more content†¦He had a newspaper folded neatly in front of him. The woman, her mostly gray blonde hair freshly styled and worm to just below her shoulders, wore a blue medium-heavy summer jacket with a very colorful scarf wrapped around her neck. Her pants were comfortable looking jeans, and her shoes were almost new looking black flat walking shoes. She only had a cup of tea in front of her with two bags, which she dipped up and down constantly until she pulled them out and began drinking. They both wore wedding bands on their ring fingers. I would imagine them both to be in their late sixties to early seventies. Relationship These two people were obviously, to me, man and wife, as they leaned toward each other and kissed on a couple of occasions during my time observing them. In the first few minutes, I noticed that the woman would sometimes reach her hand out and rest it on the man’s forearm, smiling at him and gently patting and caressing his forearm as she did but would also appear as though she wasn’t really paying much attention to what he was saying a lot of the time. The man would constantly smile and once even took his wife’s hands in his to gently kiss them before letting them go. He would also talk, at great length, about something I can only imagine was possibly boring or had been talked about before in the relationship. The constant eye contact while talking and occasional touching and kissing lead me to the conclusion that these were two peopleShow MoreRelatedNonverbal Observation Essay1111 Words   |  5 PagesNONVERBAL COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION On September 12, 2008, I observed two people; Person A and Person B. The observation took place at Applebee’s, a local restaurant, beginning at 7:21 p.m. and ending observation at 8:06 p.m. I was serving their table for the evening, enabling myself to observe them closely. The restaurant had died down from the dinner rush, leaving them one of three tables in the smoking section, normally filled with eight. Along with the outside light fading, the lightingRead MoreMy Observation of a Couple at a Restaurant: Nonverbal Communication1085 Words   |  5 Pages INTRODUCTION On September 12, 2014, I observed two people; Person A and Person B. The observation took place at Applebee’s, a local restaurant, beginning at 7:21 p.m. and ending observation at 8:06 p.m. I was serving their table for the evening, enabling myself to observe them closely. The restaurant had died down from the dinner rush, leaving them one of three tables in the smoking section, normally filled with eight. Along with the outside light fading, the lighting indoors was dim, makingRead MoreQualitative Project : Observational Methods1360 Words   |  6 PagesObservational Methods Outline 14.1: Introduction The choice to conduct observational research is based on the questions we want to answer. This form of research needs to be approached with the knowledge in mind that this type of psychological observation is inferential in nature. 14.2: What is observational research? Observational research can be both a standalone and an integrated research method. Observational studies can be conceptualized into four core dimensions: Theory testing-exploratoryRead MoreA Research Study On Observational Research796 Words   |  4 Pagesdata about a phenomenon of interest. It focuses on the behavior of people through their verbal comment or nonverbal expression, body movements and physical contact between two or more people. Although observational research is a preferred approach it is not always flexible and some behavior of interest is beyond the reach of the researcher, (pg. 173). 2. The goal of structured observation is usually ANSWER- (c )To find support for something or cast doubt on it Structured studies identify andRead More21st Century Student Observation Essays950 Words   |  4 PagesRunning head: 21st CENTURY STUDENT 21st Century Student Observation Jordan F. Hollern Grand Canyon University: EDU 527 12/12/2011 21st Century Student Observation While observing middle school, high school and college age students at a local mall, I was taken aback by the differences in styles and attitudes from when I attended those various levels of education. I observed and noted many attributes and behaviors of these various peer groups and notice some similarities and some differencesRead MoreThe Mission Of Valley Mountain Regional Center1176 Words   |  5 Pagesto the home to observe and explains to you how the process is going to go. The School does their assessment along with Valley Mountain Regional center. Then you meet with a psychologists and along with all the assessments and paperwork, and his observation. You received a final diagnosis in which the school social worker is present at all times for any questions or concerns. According to â€Å"Introduction to Human Services†, in general, school social workers exist to assist children in managing any psychosocialRead MoreSmall Group Observation : Purpose, And Dynamics Of The Group1491 Words   |  6 PagesSmall Group Observation Paper Type, Purpose, and Dynamics of the Group The Small Group Observation assignment provided the opportunity to experience a self-help group and better understand the intentions, purpose, and functions of support groups. The particular group that I observed was provided through my field agency, Richland 2 School District, for all interns serving as school social workers. The small group is considered a task group that is centered around giving an additional layer of supportRead MoreMy Coaching Behavior Lab, The Head Coach For Women s Golf1382 Words   |  6 Pagespraise was never excessive or delivered in a way that could negatively affect the arousal level of the athlete. This is especially relevant in the sport of golf where maintaining peak arousal level is key to performance. The coach took advantage of nonverbal communication on several occasions, with a head nod and a smile, or by clapping. It is important to note that an athlete was never praised for an outcome that did not deserve it, but the coach’s praise was genuine and specific to a desirable actionRead MoreSocial Interactions And Development During The Younger Age Group Essay2233 Words   |  9 Pagesbased on a few observations. My first observation was that she recognized herself in the mirror and smiled (Oesterreich, 2007). This skill requires children know and understand what they look like and that when shown a mirror, it is still themselves. Another instance that helped me assess her was that she waved â€Å"hi† to Irene when walking past her. She had socially learned that you wave to someone, stored it in her brain, and then used it when she could. Based on these observations, I would put TulaRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Participant Observation or Surveys as a Research Method1937 Words   |  8 Pagessociologist too mention but a few, professions employ the daily observations we engage in as humans in a methodology called participant observation. Dewalt and Dewalt (2002:1) define participant observation as â€Å"a met hod in which a researcher takes part in the daily activities, events, rituals and interactions, of a group of people as one of the means of learning the explicit and tacit aspects of their life routine and culture.† Participant observation can be carried out in roles that reveal or hide the identity

Digital Telecommunications and Network Free Essays

A network is defined by Noergaard (2005) as a collection of two or more connected devices that can send or receive data. He further adds that the relationship between these connected devices in a network determines the total architecture. The purpose of this report is to understand the networked applications architectures. We will write a custom essay sample on Digital Telecommunications and Network or any similar topic only for you Order Now Two networking architectures are covered here; the client/server architecture and peer-to-peer architecture. The report first gives an outline of these two architectures and their advantages and disadvantages. It is seen that the industry divides its products on the concept of client-server model or peer-to-peer model. Some applications perform better with the former model while others perform better with the later model (Klemt 2005), 1992). Based on the understanding of this report, two separate scenarios for a basic networking application will be analysed. The idea will be to judge the type of networking architecture to be used for each scenario. Finally based on the entire analysis, a conclusion will be drawn as to which resource has to be used in what situation. Part 1: Review of Client/Server and P2P application architecture Client/Server architecture Client-network computing is one of the most basic paradigms of distributed computing, and this architecture is based on the paradigm as described by Jalote (2005). This architecture has a minimum of three components – a client, a server and a network that connects these two systems. This is a two level architecture where a client requests a service and the server provides it (Singh 2005). The server is usually accessed through a remote procedure called RPC, request of which is defined by their signature. The processing of the request is internal to the server and is transparent to the client. The client and server may be on different or same systems Advantages of client/server architecture Client server architecture using RPCs has been used for over a decade for system wide exchange computing (Singh 2005). The main reason for this is the high level of reliability this architecture provides. It is also found that the cost of the entire system over a period of time is less than that used by other architectures. In addition, the architecture also enhances safety since any of its components can be removed without a major impact on the other system. This architecture leads to a better distribution of resources through the system. This architecture also leads to increased productivity because the front and back end distribution of processes is optimised (Jalote, 2005). Disadvantages of client/server architecture The main disadvantage of the client/server architecture is that there are multiple databases in the client/server environment, making the management and synchronizing of the data shared between them difficult. This also leads to a difficulty in software distribution and configuration management program, as the system is distributed. The cost of maintenance may also increase because of the different networks being inter-networked. P2P architecture Peer-to-peer or P2P architecture is another way of managing distributed applications. In this method, the individual nodes have similar and comparable roles, unlike the client/server systems. In this architecture, the nodes are given roles such that both can act as client and server. This type of connection requires at least two computers connected to each other (Reid, 2004). In order to function correctly each node of the system should know the address of at least another node. Each node can directly contact the other node of the system for using its resources, without going trough the server (Heathcote Langfield, 2004) Advantages of P2P Architecture This type of communication exists since the time of old IBM PCs. The primary advantage of a P2P network is that it is fault tolerant and there is no single location for the fault. This means that the system works well even when several of its components are missing (Verma, 2004). Also the combination of processing power of multiple nodes in a network greatly increases the efficiency of the system in terms of combined processing power and storage when compared with a central server. P2P systems are hence extremely autonomous and can secure anonymity. They can be generally deployed in an ad hoc system without requiring central management or control. Finally, unlike the client/server systems there is no need for a separate network operating system (Reid, 2004). Disadvantages of P2P Architecture The manageability of peer-to-peer systems is much harder, due to the extremely distributed nature of the system. Security is also not centrally controlled and the users need to remember different passwords for accessing the resources located on different nodes on the network (Porter, 2006). Facilities such as backup are the responsibilities of the individual user unlike the client/server systems where the server can schedule them. This system works best for lesser number of systems in a network, usually under 10 (Reid, 2004). Part 2: The architecture of Mr. Robertson’s home network Network Architecture The architecture which I would suggest for Mr. Robertson’s home would be a peer—to-peer network. There is no necessity for a client/server model in this case. Also no type of hub system is required, since the application is very simple Justification As is already explained in the section above, a peer-to peer network is used for ease of applications without extra overload. The system works best for systems which having less than 10 systems. As Mr. Robertson’s system uses only two computers, the system is ideal for this purpose. In addition to this, the home network does not require the additional overhead of a server so a pure peer-to-peer system, one without any server (Subramanian Goodman, 2005), can be used. The application mainly used is the file sharing which can be easily done. Also for using the internet, there is no necessity for the system to have simultaneous connections as is already mentioned in the example. While, to most intents and purposes, a printer application requires the use of a server so as to manage the print request being sent from multiple systems, this is clearly not the case here. The network should merely have the capability to receive print jobs from both the systems a simultaneous operational capability is not really required, as the application would not be too critical. In the worst case, the print job could be cancelled and given again. Finally, the use of a client server system would in addition to setting a server, also need additional components and software like an operating system, which is not required in this case, as there is no need for tasks like allocation resources, backups etc. Also, Mr Robertson gets the advantage of removing any of the two systems from the network at anytime, and the second component would work just as well, as neither of the system is a server. Components for the home network In addition to the 2 computers and printers purchased by Mr. Robertson, he needs very few components to get his system up an running. He would need the cable modem, a twisted cable pair, media converter for running the internet through cable, a splitter and a print sharer. There is no necessity for a hub for such a system, which is necessary only if there are more than two computers on a network. The splitter would divide the internet connection to the two systems which will the function of the print sharer also. A wireless NIC or a wired one can be used to share the network. Only single numbers of components, except the connecting cables, are needed because there are only two computers. Topology of the home network The figure above shows the basic topology of the network. As explained above, there is no need for a hub for just 2 systems. The printer can be connected either via a print sharer or the software can be used to do that by accessing the network. Here, each computer can access the network printer. In addition, the cable connection that comes can be split into two using a splitter. This type of networking requires basic minimum of components and can be used for connecting systems on a home network. This system is extendable to more than two systems. The only difference would be that in that case, a hub would be used between the two systems instead of just a cable. Also the cable type, which is twisted in this case, might be changed for more than two computer systems, because of load factors. In this case also, there will not be any necessity for a server, as the printer tasks will be shared, but not scheduled or managed by an external system. Part 3: The architecture of the LAN of BC Inc. Network Architecture For the company’s LAN, a client server system is a must. There are only 16 systems, on the LAN would more than fulfil the application necessity. There are multiple applications needed for this system. There is the printer service which is multiple in numbers and locations. In addition, there is the obvious necessity for an email and web server for the business applications. All this necessitates are need for the use of a client/server model. Justification In many of the situations given above the peer-to-peer network fails to have any use. First and foremost is the number of systems. The P2P system is only suitable if the number of systems is less than 10, as mentioned earlier. Also it is not just the number of system that is a problem, since it is not a very huge network. Office applications as a rule need more features and functionality than a home based server, and so the load on the network contributed by each system is also a lot. In addition to this there is he additional necessity for security and backups as compared to the home networks. People usually prefer manual backups on their home networks, but almost all the companies insist on having scheduled backups for the protection of data. In addition, the systems also need to have security updates with a controlled installation, which is not necessary for a home network, whose security necessities extend maximum to having a basic firewall. As in earlier case, due to data sensitivity, companies prefer to have all of these controlled rather than leaving it to the discretion of the office employees. There is an obvious burden due to the higher cost of installation and maintenance of the system. But this is more than compensated by the quality of security and safety levels given by such a system. Also since, there are only 16 employees in the system, it is logical to have the email server as the same as the network server. This is also true for the web server applications. However, here there is an assumption being taken. It is assumed that the company business is a small size, based on the number of people working there. This may very well not be the case. In addition to this, the web sever installation might be mandatory on an external system, because of security reasons. For instance, the company might not want its intranet lined with its webserver to provide more security. This case might necessitate the need for a separate web server, though for this report, a single sever is being considered for now. Physical Components In addition to the computer systems and printers, the company needs many additional systems to make a network. First and the most important of this is the server system, which needs be high ended, with high processing power and speed. This is that the system can easily act as a intranet server, a mail server, and also the web server. In addition to this a router is essential for connecting to the internet via the DSL modem. Also there are multiple numbers of cables, based on the systems connected to the network. Since the system is connected via the Ethernet here, the internet being a DSL based one; the corresponding cables are also required. The printer is connected to the server, which takes care of the scheduling the print jobs. The other servers, as mentioned earlier are situated on the main server itself. The figure above shows the scheme of the connection diagram. The above diagram is a very simplistic way of representation of the office network. As mentioned above, the server would be common from email and web applications, and also take care of the intra networking scheme. In addition, the various printers and DSL modem would be added to this server only. The server would need a network operating system and the main security firewalls and the protection schemes like the antivirus would be installed here. Ethernet would be the mode of interconnection in the network. The system can be extended when a new web server is required, which is separate from the present server. There can be another server attached to the present one which would take care of the business related websites etc. The connection would be restricted so that only the purchase related or feedback related information is passed to the main server, which would then direct this information to the necessary client system. Conclusion In the report mentioned above, there were two types of networking architecture which were analysed. One was the client server architecture, which is one of the oldest networking schemes available. The system finds its use in complex networks having many systems, and necessity for multi-file sharing applications, common or shared database and also security. All these are provided by this system, which the case seen by the company example is being taken here. The operations are very complex with multi-printers and their multiple locations, the necessary for common access to the internet, and also the need for servers for websites and emails. Also the network needed security and will be needed managed access permission for files stored on the network. The restricted type of entry for a network is possible only for a client and server type of architecture, which is what was proposed for this case. The company being an accounting firm would also need internal data restrictions and security issues, which can only be tacked by this architecture. In contrast, the home networking system is a very simple operation, which needs to have a mere connection to the internet and the use of a printer. There are no constraints of security or access restrictions on this systems and the main application need is a basic file share operation. For such a system a basic, peer-to-peer architecture is sufficient. There is no need for hubs also as there are only two systems. The network does not need any server based system which is too much of overkill here. Hence, using these two examples, the two types of networking architectures are explained here. How to cite Digital Telecommunications and Network, Papers

A Review of the Role of Entrepreneurship in Stimulating Economic Growth free essay sample

They also further states that entrepreneurs have been responsible for growth and development over the centuries and are identified as the key role players in the economy of every country. The paper identifies the different definitions of an entrepreneur which are identified as the different channels in which entrepreneurship lead to economic growth, reduced unemployment and increased levels of income among countries. As a result of the role of entrepreneurship in any country, most countries emphasises on integrating entrepreneurial activity in its economic policy. A discussion is made on developing economies mainly South Africa, China, Brazil and Russia comparing the entrepreneurial activity within the economies. Economic growth is best defined as a long-term expansion of the productive potential of the economy. It is measured by the comparing the difference between the Gross National Product (GNP) in a year with the GNP of the previous year. A growing economy is when the difference is positive. We will write a custom essay sample on A Review of the Role of Entrepreneurship in Stimulating Economic Growth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The term simply refers to an increase in the ability to produce goods and services. It is easier to define unemployment when there is an understanding of the term economic growth. Unemployment refers to when a person who is actively searching for employment cannot find work to do. This is an instrument used to determine the healthiness of an economy. After knowing the levels of unemployment in an economy, determining the level of income distribution becomes a bit projected. The level of income in an economy refers to the way in which in money is distributed among the population in an economy. The above three defined terms has a link to each other. The level of economic growth have a direct proportional influence on the possible jobs available in the economy while a reciprocal relationship exist between the level of income in the particular economy and levels of unemployment. The level of income is directly proportional to economic growth. Also, the level of unemployment is directly proportional to the level of income in an economy. However, all the above aspects are influenced by the level of entrepreneurship in the particular economy. An economy with high activity of entrepreneurship is more likely to be characterized by high economic growth, reducing levels of unemployment and increasing levels of income while an economy with low entrepreneurial activity on the other hand can be characterized by low economic growth, high levels of unemployment and low levels of income. Entrepreneurship cannot be separated from the following terms â€Å"economic growth†, â€Å"employment† and â€Å"country income level distribution† as all the entrepreneurial activities contribute largely to economic growth, levels of employment and income distribution. Different nature of entrepreneurs stimulates the growth of an economy in different ways. In any country with high levels of entrepreneurial activities or which experienced high entrepreneurial activity, the economy tends to be of middle to high income and the unemployment levels tend to be decreasing if not low. However, economies with low income distribution are characterised by low entrepreneurial activities and mostly, there are significant levels of unemployment. Such low income economies have high records of poverty which leads them to seek donors. Different authors made contributions on this topic and this paper compares and links the information obtained into a comprehensive review. The term entrepreneurship has been defined by Schumpeter (1934) as lying in the perceptions and exploration of new opportunities in the realm of business. He further states that it always has to do with bringing about a different use of resources in that they are withdrawn from their traditional employ and subjected to new combinations. Schumpeter relates entrepreneurship to be influenced by entrepreneurs who are innovative and hese people have to be extra-ordinary as they have to come up with extra-ordinary events. They come up with new technological possibilities hence are able to establish large businesses from these. Carland etal. (1984) confirms that an entrepreneur is someone innovative and further says that he or she employs strategic management practices in the business. Timmons (2000) believes entrepreneurship as the process of creating a nd seizing an opportunity and pursuing it, regardless of resources currently controlled. Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009) define an entrepreneur as the person who sees an opportunity in the market, gathers resources and creates and grows a business venture to meet these needs. They also further states that he or she bears risk of the venture and is rewarded with profit if it succeed. With different definitions of entrepreneurship defined by different authors through the way they define an entrepreneur, the researcher generally defines entrepreneurship as the act of being an entrepreneur who establishes business through the organisation of resources taking risk with the aim of realising profit. The Schumpeterian entrepreneur as defined above is innovative. In support for this, Curran and Stanworth (1989) defines entrepreneurship as the creation of new economic entity centred on a novel product or service or, or at the very least, one which differs significantly from products or services offered elsewhere in the market. Such entrepreneurs play a very crucial role in stimulating economic growth. They come up with huge organisations which can be monopolies in the economy. With the nature of big businesses, they would be more likely to produce large volumes of product increasing the GNP thereby contributing significantly to economic growth. With their capacity to produce large volumes, such organisation would take considerable number of employees hence reducing unemployment. By employing people, such entrepreneurs contribute to the increased levels of income in an economy. Another author Kirzner presents a different way in which entrepreneurship can be influenced by an entrepreneur through the way he defines an entrepreneur. According to Kirzner, the entrepreneur is someone who is alert to profitable opportunities for exchange. Such an entrepreneur believes in gathering the needed information, refining and providing it to those in need of it. Such entrepreneurs act as intermediaries for example between suppliers and customers. They are also very important in the growth of an economy as they facilitate inception, incubation of businesses through the provision of supportive information. The information they provide acts as a catalyst into venturing into business and builds confidence to emerging businesses. Emerging businesses require business support for them to have high chances of success hence the Kirzner entrepreneur makes the perfect match for such new businesses whose success lies on business support services. Such an entrepreneur can offer business support services such as business counselling, business mentoring and business incubation.

Knight of faith free essay sample

I came across many new phrases and words I had never heard of before. A few stuck out to me that I focused on and interested me the most. They were types of people called the Aesthete, Knight of resignation, and the knight of faith. The knight of faith is someone I was interested in most. I didnt quite understand the knight of faiths thought process. The knight f faith would recognize the impossibility of his wish but also truly believes that it will be arranged. They believe that for God, all things are possible. When reading Abrahams story it is hard to distinguish him from a Knight of faith and a murderer. Abraham puts all of his faith in God believing that things will be okay if he listens to God and kills his son. This makes him a Knight of faith but also a murderer if he were to actually kill his son. We will write a custom essay sample on Knight of faith or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Kierkegaard describes in his book the differences etween the two but still remarks on how they can overlap. I argue that Kierkegaard did not give sufficient criteria for distinguishing the knight of faith from a murder because he is in violation of the ethical, which is the universal. As mentioned above, Kierkegaard portrayed the knight of faith as someone who recognizes the impossibility of his wish but believes that it will be granted. A great example of the knight of faith that Kierkegaard brought up was a story about a beautiful princess. A man is in love with this princess but unfortunately it is impossible for them to be together. Kierkegaard said that the knight of faith would infinitely surrender his love, settling himself to the pain. However, he also, goes one step further and says, Nevertheless I have faith that I will get herthat is, by virtue of the absurd, by virtue of the fact that for God all things are possible (pg. 67). Agreeing to the understanding, this is impossible, and the knight

Investment vs fiscal regime in small scale solid mineral mining in west africa The WritePass Journal

Investment vs fiscal regime in small scale solid mineral mining in west africa Introduction Investment vs fiscal regime in small scale solid mineral mining in west africa Introduction 1. Analysis 1.1. Literature Review 1.2. Research Methodology 1.3. Deductive and inductive reasoning 1.4. Research Limitations 1.5. Data Analysis 1.6. Overall analysis ConclusionREFERENCESRelated Introduction Small scale solid mineral mining (SSM) in the West African region of Nigeria and Ghana has been subject to analysis by many writers before to bring out the hidden aspects related to the outcomes of taxation and investment in the industry. However most of these studies are focused on the volume related outcomes rather than the strategic scenarios of the region. SSM industry output in Nigeria in 1959 contributed a mere 1% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country.   By 2010 mining contributed just 0.3% to the total GDP[1]. This insignificant contribution made by the mining industry to the country’s GDP is attributed to the vast petroleum deposits (African Development Bank and the African Union, 2009). In Nigeria the existing mining law is incorporated in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999 and the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development[2] is responsible for the oversight of all management of mineral resources in the country. The Law has been developed from the rudimentary system of regulations starting from 1903 when mining industry in Nigeria was launched by the British colonial government (Ayine, 2011). By the 1940’s the country was one of the leading producers of coal, columbite and tin. The government monopoly over SSM in Nigeria came to an end in 1999 when the government began to sell assets in mining corporations to private entrepreneurs. However, it must be noted that the Law governing the SSM in Nigeria [3]was not as sophisticated as that of Ghana. Ghana’s fiscal policy measures were particularly conducive for the development of the SSM industry on a small scale. Though the country too has a sizable amount of oil it did not neglect the SSM related developments. The fiscal policy regime in Nigeria concerning SSM has been described by researchers as one-sided, i.e. it is overloaded with petroleum resources related developments while tax concessions to SSM business, especially private is almost non-extant. Thus this study analyses the outcomes related to the possibility developing SSM related fiscal and investment framework in Nigeria in comparison to Ghana (The Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, 2007). 1. Analysis 1.1. Literature Review Nigeria’s SSM cannot be well understood without a reference to its gradual neglect of the industry as well. For instance according to many writers on the subject during the 1980’s the country had relied on coal and wood as a source of fuel for most of the countryside population’s day-to-day cooking needs (www.dundee.ac.uk). Subsequently coal was sought to be replaced by diesel for the railways though the rural communities continued to use coal and wood into the foreseeable future for their cooking needs. Just 73,000 tons of coal were produced in 1986 as against a whopping figure of 940,000 tons in 1958. The same fate befell the columbite and tin mining because by the end of 1980’s high grade iron ore was almost completely depleted. The  Ministry of Mines and Steel Development  was created with a view to developing the solid mineral industry in the country (www.mmsd.gov.ng). Though the Minster himself has assured the international investors of good opportunities and invited them to come and invest in the SSM industry there is a general trend of reluctance among investors primarily due to the inadequacy and inefficiency of fiscal regulations to assure good returns on their investments (Alison-Madueke, 2009). Fiscal policy [4]measures adopted by Nigeria concerning SSM have been known to be scanty and sparse.   SSM related fiscal policy and investment measures in Nigeria have to be studied against the Ghanaian developments in SSM because the latter has adopted some of the far reaching changes in respect of the country’s SSM thus encouraging the small scale investors to identify and invest in more lucrative areas of the industry (Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Department, 2006). Nigeria right now has one of the most undeveloped fiscal policy regimes in the whole continent concerning SSM while on the other hand Ghana has adopted some advanced features in the system of taxation. In addition to the macroeconomic policy reforms the country has extensively adopted MMS related policy reforms in order to attract investment to the country. The Mineral and Mining Law (PNDCL 153) of 1986 [5]vests all rights of ownership in the Ghanaian government thus creating one of the most successful pillars for effective governance of the industry (files.africanstudies.webnode.com). Subsequently two addendums were introduced – the Additional Profit Tax Law (PNDCL 122) and Minerals (Royalties) Regulations (LI 1349). These laws along with highly generous tax incentives and exemptions to foreign investors have served as the cornerstone of the entire SSM in Ghana. But nonetheless these laws were codified in the Ghana Internal Revenue Act [6]since 2000. By 1994 the level of corporate tax in the industry was brought down to 35% in Ghana while the capital expenditure allowance to investors was increased to 20% in the first year. Subsequently in each year the investor is entitled to 15% .of allowances from 1986. The Royalty rate calculated at 6% of the total worth of the mineral was subsequently reduced to 3%. All other duties such as import duty, mineral duty and the foreign exchange tax were done away with. The import taxes on machinery and equipment were also exempted (www.dundee.ac.uk). These developments created a positive cumulative impact on the SSM scenario in Ghana. There was also the provision to permit the leaseholder to retain 25% of the foreign exchange earnings in a foreign bank account. This is intended to facilitate the purchase of equipment and machinery. Ghana’s fiscal policy measures on SSM are wide and varied. For instance the net present value of the investment is sought to be maximized for the investor in conformance with a comparison on probable net returns from alternative investment vehicles such as purchasing government or/and corporate bonds, shares and other investments in funds (www.ghana-mining.org). After tax yield of the investment matters so much that the net present value of the company ought to be maximized especially in an SSM environment. Mineral taxation systems [7]ought to take into consideration the realized profitability as against the potential and empower the firm to pay back capital borrowings at an early date. Tax duplication must be avoided and any structural adjustment initiatives undertaken by the company must come to a successful conclusion with the help of the tax system (Hossain, 2003). Since the SSM industry requires a higher level of capital investment for a longer period of time before adequate positive earnings are made the tax system of the country must be designed to accommodate concerns of the investor. According to some recent research works tax systems on mineral exploration and development often run into rough weather in times of economic recessions because governments fail to provide adequate buffer against the investment failure (Economic Commission for Africa, 2004). If the government fails to maximize the net present value of tax revenue and earn more tax revenue during periods of high profit earnings by companies, then there would be some incapacities coming into the system to prevent it from registering positive growth. Marginally productive mines have to be brought into higher yield capacity through capital intensive production techniques. Internal cost drivers like administration and research development [8](RD) must be controlled in such a manner to avoid cost rises in production. 1.2. Research Methodology Secondary data was collected through an extensive research effort conducted in libraries and online. The information regarding SSM was collected in order to analyze and come to conclusions. Secondary data is regarded as the second hand data or the data that have been exposed before for various reasons. It is not fresh data as the primary data. It is relatively easier to find secondary data than the primary data (Twerefou, 2009). Various sources are used to implement the objective by using secondary data gathered from such sources as textbooks, professional journals, and various university publications, corporate reports of various companies and the government, and university theses. These sources were used to analyze and provide the reliable accurate inferences regarding the SSM in Nigeria and Ghana. These secondary data sources have provided an extensive understanding of the fiscal policy measures adopted by Nigeria and Ghana (Davis, Ossowski Fedelino, 2003). The comparison has been made to show that Ghanaian system of taxation [9]is far superior in the solid mineral mining and exploration industry when compared to the Nigerian system.   Ã‚  Various textbooks and publications were used to build and draw reliable theoretical conclusions and make findings. References were taken from most of the research material available in the field.   Theoretical analysis is much well facilitated than primary material which is basically limited to responses in the questionnaire and the survey. Also there is considerable reflection on the state and relevance of current research.   Relevant web sites and official documents links were accessed to provide more credibility to the study and for further reference (Onugu, 2005).  Ã‚   Future research possibilities in the field are discussed in depth to show how theoretical underpinnings evolve with time and space with specific reference to the current developments in the SSM field. 1.3. Deductive and inductive reasoning This paper used deductive reasoning as against inductive reasoning. Deductive research refers to a process in which a more general approach leads to a more particular approach. For example the researcher may start off with a theory on the subject and then build up a series of hypotheses to arrive at specific details of the research topic (Campbell, 2009). Deductive reasoning is sometimes known as top-down approach. On the other hand inductive reasoning refers to the opposite process or approach. In inductive research the researcher starts from more specific hypotheses and then go on to generalized areas of study. This is sometimes known as bottom-up approach. 1.4. Research Limitations The industry-centric research methodology aspect was focused on both the quantitative and qualitative paradigms but nevertheless the qualitative aspect was hindered by a variety of shortcomings including the inability of this researcher to obtain quality testing measures.   However it must be noted here that this detailed study would pay more attention to qualitative shifts than to quantitative data shifts caused by an industry in transition (Daniel Keen, 2010). The skewed nature of published data cannot be stressed on too much either because such bias and prejudice are only too common at each level. However for the purpose of ascertaining the tax system related outcomes such skewed data did not have a greater negative impact on conclusions. Next the all too well known limitations, viz. cultural bias [10]and prejudice displayed by researchers in Nigeria and Ghana might have hampered the efforts of this researcher to a certain extent. By following strict control mechanisms and a set of relevant guidelines the accuracy of the analysis can be made right though. This tendency apart some data sets were characterized by a degree of inaccuracy with regard to analysis. The recent developments in the SSM were not adequately borne out by these analyses (MBendi, 2011).   Thus the qualitative research aspect also assumes a significant dimension of right or wrong. Organizational settings could have hampered the data collection efforts of many researche rs and as a result they might have been influenced by cultural attachments and biases. The most significant data sets for any serious conclusions have been sifted to come to some conclusions that have a direct bearing on the learning outcomes of this study. For instance the Nigerian fiscal policy measures as based on attracting foreign investors to invest in solid mineral mining and exploration is particularly influenced by a desire on the part of the government to provide employment to local population (Chamber of Mines Newsletter, 2001). 1.5. Data Analysis Source: developingmarkets.com/dma/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/minister-of-mines1.pdf Table 2.5.1: Nigeria’s seven strategic solid minerals Source:developingmarkets.com/dma/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/minister-of-mines1.pdf      Table 2.5.2: Gold Production in Ghana Source:ghana-mining.org/ghweb/en/ma/mincom/mainStageParagraphs/06/childParagraphs/01/document/Major%20Minerals%20Prod%2090-07.pdf 1.6. Overall analysis Tax analysis with emphasis on fiscal policy in Nigeria requires a systematic theoretical analysis of the net present value. When corporate taxes are considered the firm is entitled to interest expense deduction which enables it to increase value of its assets. According to Modigliani Miller (1963) the tax exemption allows the firm to reduce the leverage-based premium in the cost associated with raising the equity capital. Subsequently Miller added personal taxes to the equation. An investor ought to make an investment only when it has a positive Net Present Value (NPV). Those investments or projects whose returns are negative must be disregarded.   The following formula is generally used to depict the NPV [1]of an investment or a project. The hypothetical example that follows the formula shows a positive NPV equal to  £123,928.60 at the end of the five year period. Here the opportunity cost of capital is assumed to be 12%. Year  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cash flow  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discounted cash flow 0  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   =    £-(10,000.00) 1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10,000.00  Ã‚  Ã‚   =     Ã‚  Ã‚    £ 8,928.57 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   20,000 .00  Ã‚   =       £ 17,857.14 3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   40,000 .00  Ã‚   =       £ 35,714.28 4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   50,000.00  Ã‚   =  Ã‚     Ã‚    £44,642.85 5  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   30,000 .00  Ã‚   =       £ 26,785.71 NPV  Ã‚   =  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚    £123,928.60 Thus by adopting it as the discount rate for all future cash flows one can effectively obtain the NPV for them. This gives a few advantages. In the first place proper financial management requires a realistic opportunity cost to be set against capital. Though over a period of 5 years there can be considerable pressure on interest rates, a steady return of earnings would be ensured through proper cash flow management. After all the above cash flow forecasts are assumed to be constant though, in reality they might vary. The decision to make the investment is based on the apparent returns by way of future cash flows and it does not take into account the risk factor involved. For instance the investor has totally disregarded DCF method because he probably considers those future returns to be final and conclusive with respect to their values. The DCF calculations and the NPV figure of the total investment show that the decision is fairly justifiable because the NPV is equal to  £ 123,928.60 which is a considerable value against probable future inflationary pressure, i.e. the opportunity cost of capital. The importance of discounting future cash flows by using these formulas also depends on other factors as well. Discounted cash flows give a real picture of the future possibilities.   Since DCF[2] is what an individual is willing to pay at present in order to have what he   expects to have in the future, it’s a process of expressing future revenue flows in terms of today’s value. Probably the most important reason behind DCF is the fact that inflation erodes the value of money in times to come, i.e. future. Therefore it’s essential to make up for the loss. That is why in each subsequent DCF multiplied by the number of years, a lower value comes up (Notermans, 2000). The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) [3]sets the present value of all future cash flows of an investment equal to zero. IRR usually holds the assumption that all future cash inflows would be reinvested at the internal rate as calculated at present. Assuming that there are investment projects with returns that exceed the cost of capital or interest, such projects would be seriously considered for investment. In other words when the IRR is greater the investment is more attractive. However it’s the NPV that every investor seeks to adopt because it has a less number of disadvantages or flaws. However there is abatement or mitigation of systematic risk through hedging. Individual investment decisions concerning risk mitigation are inevitably focused on the capital adequacy rules. Concurrent decisions to mitigate risk and maintain capital adequacy are nothing new in the investment sphere. Sharpe ratio is used to calculate the amount of systematic risk: Here the performance evaluation is based on risk-adjusted measures. Now the question â€Å"is the return adequate compensation for the risk?† has to be answered by working out the returns given the risk involved. The following explanations are used to work it out. The Sharpe ratio enables the adjustment of returns on investments to be conclusive with respect to risk-free returns and the degree of volatility of an investment. Rp   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Average return on the portfolio Rf   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Average risk free rate Sp  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Standard deviation of portfolio return (total risk). While Sharpe ratio is useful in determining adjusted risk and performance of a portfolio, there are other measures as well that have to be used in order to determine the level of risk accurately. Treynor ratio: rp   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Average return on the portfolio rf   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Average risk free rate ÃŽ ²p  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = Beta of portfolio (systematic risk) Treynor ratio is used to measure returns that are in excess of what could have been made on risk-free investment.   For example Treasury Bills are less risky than other volatility-prone assets. That’s why it’s sometimes called reward-to-volatility ratio. It uses systematic risk. Thus higher the Treynor ratio, the higher the returns made on investments. However it is not like Sharpe ratio which is a measure of the excess return and does not help much. Next there is the Jensen’s Alpha, a measure that calculates the excess returns above the security market line as done in the capital asset pricing model (CAPM).[4] CAPM also uses beta as a multiplier to determine the total value of returns. Jensen’s Alpha is a risk adjusted portfolio performance metric. It’s calculated by using a regression technique to determine the performance of a given portfolio of a manager tested against a benchmark. On the other hand unsystematic (un-systemic) risk refers to a risk inherent in a particular industry or market that falters due to a specifically divergent variable. Unsystematic risk[5] (or residual risk or diversifiable risk) can be overcome by resorting to diversification of one’s portfolio (Lo, 2005).   Since unsystematic risk is specific to a particular market/industry or market segment, diversification helps investors either to reduce risk or totally cancel out depending on the relative offsetting effect of less risky investments. Unsystematic risk essentially presupposes the existence of a remedial measure without resorting to hedging which can be uncertain for a number of reasons. In the first place hedging is carried out with the intention of obviating systematic risk which occurs as the result of an exogenous variable going astray. In the case of unsystematic risk exogenous variables are assumed to behave in the predictable way (Lehmann, 1990). Thus forecasts are reliable to the extent that the individual potential investor does not feel the need to shuffle the basket of investments. Fund managers whose instincts the investor relies on, do not feel obliged to advice clients on the contrary decisions. In fact such advice depends not only the instincts of fund managers but also statistical forecasts. As the portfolio is more diversified unsystematic risk moves closer to zero. Accounting risk[6], financial risk [7]and economic risk[8] are all part and parcel of unsystematic risk. They signify the very nature of risk. For instance a financial risk might involve mistakes in cash flow forecasts thus leading to liquidity problems. These residual risks do not have a big impact on the whole system. The systemic imperviousness stands out as the most credible security against risk. But nevertheless the degree of this imperviousness is determined by a number of other factors that are inherent to the system itself. Calculations involve the same process as above. However, CAPM is often used to measure an individual security or a portfolio. Additionally the security market line [9](SML) is used to measure the reward-to-risk ratio of a security in relation to the total market as shown below. Finally total risk is the sum total of systematic risk and unsystematic risk. While the choice of the individual investor between different types of securities or investment instruments matters here, there is the need for the investor to make some decisive decisions involving which risk out of systematic and unsystematic risks to be reduced visvis the other. The following graph illustrates the hypothetical scenario of a company which invests in a given portfolio of securities. The red line is the Security Market Line. the horizontal axis shows the betas of all companies in the market   the vertical axis shows the required rates of return, as a percentage Assuming that the risk free rate is 5%, and the overall stock market will produce a rate of return of 12.5% next year the following would give a clearer picture of fundamental financial ratio analysis. The imaginary investor/shareholder/company has a beta of 1.7. This result is obtained by substituting a few sample betas into the CAPM equation as follows. Ks = Krf + B (Km Krf). Table 2.5.3: Beta Values Security Beta (It’s a measure of risk) Rate of Return Risk Free 0.0 5.00% Overall Stock Market 1.0 12.50% Utopia Company 1.7 17.75% Source: www.teachmefinance.com    This figure and hypothetical data can be applied to understand all three types of risks in investing in the Nigeria’s solid mineral mining and exploration industry.    Conclusion Time and again it has been argued that Nigeria’s existing fiscal policy regime in general and the tax system in particular regarding the SSM requires urgent revision to invite both local foreign investors. It has also been suggested that such a revision or an overhauling would be worked out in conformance with SSM’s current developments. Nigeria has been heavily dependent on its oil resource and in fact has been neglecting solid mineral mining industry [1]while another West African country Ghana has been systematically developing its solid minerals industry at a consistent pace. Thus the analysis is focused on a distinction between industry related features in Nigeria and Ghana to bring about a conviction of the existing tax anomalies in the former. While the paper focuses attention on a variety of tax related shortcomings in Nigeria ranging from the near total absence of a well structured corporate tax system in the solid mineral mining industry[2] in general and the SSM sector in particular, it has stressed on the significance of fiscal policy measures that require a systematic effort sustained over the years to bring about both a qualitative and quantitative shift in the solid mineral mining industry. The comparison with Ghana is made to in order to delineate a series of positive developments that have taken place within the Ghanaian taxation system in the solid mineral mining and exploration sector. Ghana has put in place a number of corporate tax incentives and relaxed its rules and regulations on the acquisition of mining rights[3] to assure the potential foreign investor that net returns on their investment in the sector would produce more than anticipated net returns. Nigeria just needs this kind of change in its tax sys tem to create a series of positive synergies. REFERENCES Books African Development Bank and the African Union, 2009. Oil and Gas in Africa, New York: Oxford University Press. Campbell, B., 2009. Mining in Africa: Regulation and Development, New York: Pluto Press. Daniel, P. Keen, M. (Eds), 2010. Charles McPherson (Editor) the Taxation of Petroleum and Minerals: Principles, Problems and Practice, Oxon: Routledge. Notermans, T., 2000. Money, Markets, and the State: Social Democratic Economic Policies since 1918 (Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Journals Lehmann, B., 1990. ‘Fads, martingales, and market efficiency’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol .105, pp. 1–28. Lo, A., 2005. ‘Reconciling efficient markets with behavioral finance: the adaptive markets hypothesis’, Journal of Investment Consulting, vol.7, pp.21–44. Modigliani, F. Miller, M. H., 1963). â€Å"Corporate Income Taxes and the Cost of Capital: A Correction†, American Economic Review.   Articals Alison-Madueke, D., 2009. Opportunities in Nigeria’s Minerals Sector, Available at: developingmarkets.com/dma/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/minister-of-mines1.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Ayine, D., 2011. Natural Resource Investment Review In Developing Countries: Ghana’s Mininng Sector In Perspective, Available at: http://www2.americanbar.org/calendar/section-of-international-law-2011-spring-meeting/Documents/Friday/The%20New%20Gold%20Rush/NATURAL%20RESOURCE%20INVESTMENT%20REVIEW%20IN%20DEVELOPING%20COUNTRIES-%20GHANA’S%20MININNG%20SECTOR% [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Chamber of Mines Newsletter, 2001. Tanzania Chamber of Mines Newsletter, Available at: chamberofmines-tz.com/newsletter/news4a33b01078f7a.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Davis, J.M., Ossowski, R, Fedelino, A. (Eds), 2003. ‘Fiscal Policy Formulation and Implementation in Oil-Producing Countries’, International Monetary Fund, Available at: imf.org/external/pubs/nft/2003/fispol/index.htm#ch1 [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Economic Commission for Africa, 2004. Harmonization of Mining Policies, Standards, Legislative and Regulatory Frameworks in Southern Africa, Available at: http://vi.unctad.org/files/wksp/oilgaswksptanz10/docs/Background%20readings/SRO-SA%20Mining%20Report_final%20Harmonisation%20Study.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Department, 2006, Ghana Country Environmental Analysis, Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETENVIRONMENT/3635842-1175696087492/21919456/Ghana_CEA.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Hossain, S.M., (2003). ‘Taxation and pricing of petroleum products in developing countries: A framework for analysis with application to Nigeria’, International Monetary Fund Working Paper, Available at: imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2003/wp0342.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. KopiÅ„ski, D., Undermining mining: the impact of the financial crisis on the mineral based economies of Sub-Saharan Africa, Available at: files.africanstudies.webnode.com/200000108/Undermining%20mining.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Lawal, M. A., Constraints to Small Scale Mining in Nigeria: Policies and Strategies for Development, Available at: dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/car/assets/images/Nike.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Nwete, B.O.N., Mineral and Petroleum Taxation How Can Tax Allowances PROMOTE Investment in the Nigerian Petroleum Industry, Available at: dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/car/html/car8_article14.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Onugu, B. A. N., 2005, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) In Nigeria: Problems and Prospects, Available at: stclements.edu/grad/gradonug.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. The Minerals Commission of Ghana, The Minerals Commission of Ghana, Available at: ghana-mining.org/ghweb/en/ma/mincom.html [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Twerefou, D.K., 2009. Mineral Exploitation, Environmental Sustainability and Sustainable Development in EAC, SADC and ECOWAS Regions, Available at: uneca.org/atpc/Work%20in%20progress/79.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Websites MBendi, 2011. Mining in Nigeria, Available at: mbendi.com/indy/ming/af/ng/p0005.htm [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. Acts Ministry Of Mines And Steel Development, National Minerals and Metals Policy, Available at: mmsd.gov.ng/Downloads/NATIONAL%20POLICY%20ON%20MINERALS%20METAL.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011]. The Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, 2007. Mining In Nigeria, Available at: gbc-law.com/Mining_in_Nigeria.pdf [Accessed 03rd May 2011].

Same-sex marriage research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Same-sex marriage research - Essay Example Recent census data reveal that the number of committed same-sex couples in the United States continues to rise, as does the number of same-sex couples raising children. Legal recognition of these relationships is vital to protecting the emotional and economic well-being of these families. Furthermore, legal recognition must be on an equal plane with heterosexual marriage-'separate but equal' is never equal." (Gomes, 15) In the article, Gomes also suggests why the issue of same-sex marriage is so controversial and the various arguments held by the advocates as well as critics of same-sex marriage. Therefore, Gomes's article has made a central contribution to the understanding of the various issues concerning same-sex marriage. According to the article by Gomes, there are several reasons why the advocates of same-sex marriage believe that it should be made legal. The advocates of same-sex marriage argue that the individuals have the prime right to enjoy their freedom and any attack against the practice should be treated as an assault against their personal liberty. According to the article, "The failure to recognize same-sex marriage and to allow adoption by non-biological life partners results in a harmful lack of legal protections for children of gay parents.

Mamikon's Calculus Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mamikon's Calculus - Research Paper Example II. Description of Mamikon’s Approach Mamikon’s method utilized shapes in order to get his points across about the ways that calculus could be approached. According to Pritchard (2003), Mamikon Mnatsakanian came up with a visual method of solving calculus utilizing shapes, which befuddled the Soviets; later on, he got his Ph.D. in physics (pp. 38). Of course, giving students linear and curved objects would be just one way to demonstrate how a calculus problem is set up. According Tom Apostol and Mamikon Mnatsakanian’s article in Haunsperger (2007), â€Å"For centuries mathematicians have been interested in curves that can be constructed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pp. 120). Mamikon’s idea was that if young people—even very young children—could use manipulatables in order to see how shapes can form and change based on volume or linear adjustments, they would be able to innately understand principles that come directly from calculus. In this regard, it is so important to have exposure to complex math problems as early as possible in order to stimulate a child’s mind. This is not to say that very young students should be forming the geometry proofs proving energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. On the contrary, the math that children should work on, in terms of problems, should be guided with visual aids and shapes or drawings that would further explain some complex concepts. III. Three Examples Having the students find a simple derivative would be a good place for them to start in learning more about the world of calculus. According to Alsina and Nelsen (2006), â€Å"In calculus, one [important piece of information] is the area under the graph of a function† (pp. 16). First, they could start of with a very simple equation, like f(x) = x^2. Then, what they could do next is find the derivative. The equation would be f’ (also known as f prime) = 2x. Next, the next step would be having a derivative of 2. And then the integer would become zero, finally. So, this is just one way in which some of the rules of derivatives could be simply explained on the board with graphs and a formula instead of having to go through the rules of the derivatives, which are pretty self-explanatory once you see how it’s done. Graphs help greatly in this regard. According to Larson and Edwards (2008), â€Å"[L]ine segments give a visual perspective of the slopes of the solutions of the differential equation† (pp. 256). The second example that would be given would be more geometry than anything else, and more of an introductory calculus problem. In order to find the hypotenuse of a triangle that the kids would cut out, they would have to take the sin of the angle equal to the opposite over adjacent lengths and then solve the problem. The third project that kids could work on would be to correctly calculate the time that it would take for a fish tank to fill up by taking measurements of the speed of the water, the measurements of the tank, etc. They would then use a calculus formula in order to figure out the answer by plugging in the numbers. This could be used to fill up a fish tank and then add new fish to the tank as a class project. IV. Lesson Plan for Students (With Accommodations for Diverse Learning Styles) Lesson Plan Components for a 5th-Grade Calculus-Focused Math Class Resources. Blackboard or whiteboard, construction paper, fishtank, water, hose, scissors, pens, pencils, colored pencils, and calculus

Kants philosophy of universalisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Kants philosophy of universalisation - Essay Example Kant’s notion of universalisation refers to the moral law which inspires and teaches us how to consider it as the ultimate truth of the possibility of moral obligation, since it cannot be explained with reference to any object of the will, or in accordance with any law of nature. What Kant believes is the significance of good will in universalism so that every individual act should be performed not as a duty, but as a moral deed in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. One of the main reasons that justify Kant’s philosophy to treat and understand humanity as a rational agency allows an individual to maintain transparency by keeping his heart and soul clear from the malice. This way an individual values his or her morals and is able to perform his worldly duties without any obligation. Kant believe this as the only way to assure oneself of the necessary obligations involved in moral values which upholds a possibility for the individual to work under the pure concept of universality. This gives a sense of believe to the person that some particular action can acquire the strict universality required to explain its unconditional necessity. Ethics provides opportunity to the individual to believe in virtue, that is what Kant believes that ethical universalism supports ethical reasoning that allows autonomous authority to every individual to adopt the principles based on ethical values to lead a simple but effective life. (O'Neill, 2005). There are reasons that help in justifying our inner selves, this way justification is done with reasoning, rather than solely maxims that hollow our principles without reasoning. Checking our moral judgements In order to seek justification for morality for every person in our society, there is a certain criteria reserved as the role model of moral law. This criteria serves by means of which we can check our inner moral judgements, that is, our judgements to 'must' act or 'must not' to act in certain ways. Now, how to assume or believe our judgement depends upon the 'maxim' of the action what Kant has proposed. That is our 'right' judgement can be perceived as a universal law without contradiction, and in order to provide reasoning to believe that our judgement is correct, we feel the need to judge in our inner self the state of being 'correct' or ;incorrect' in our moral decisions. If some thing gets wrong or one feels that some act cannot be perceived correct or moral, the best indicator is the inner conscience. Since maxim is not that matters as it cannot be willed as a universal law, this gives us the reason to believe that this verdictive judgement is correct (Lake 2000:5). Morality close to universalism Good morals is all that matters, this illustration of Kant can be analysed by the notion that a person having good morals would not hesitate what he or she should solely because his or her maxim can be willed as a universal law without contradiction. Secondly it is not necessary for that person to built maxims, as action speaks louder than words. Moral person's morality is motivated and universalised by his or her deeds, for this reason a morally good person does what he or she should tends to be identical with the normative reason to do such act. Morality provides reasons to believe, it allows our deeds to seek and get an answer whenever justification requires, and therefore it teaches us to give equal respect to the autonomy of everyone. Following this it turns out to consider only those actions that are obligatory on every individual and those which can be

Kants Categorical Imperative Essay Example for Free

Kants Categorical Imperative Essay Kantian ethics is a deontological, absolute theory proposed by Immanuel Kant in the late 1700’s. Kant taught that an action could only count as the action of a good will if it satisfied the test of the Categorical Imperative. The categorical imperative is based around the idea to act solely for the sake of duty. For example, you should share your sweets because it is a good thing to do; not because it makes you feel good. Consequentially, Kant would justify the good feeling you do when you perform a good act as a bonus not a reward. This opposes the hypothetical imperative which is where you act simply so you receive a of reward of some sort. The categorical imperative is based upon universable rules; maxims. These maxims are absolute moral statements that Kant says should be used everywhere by everyone and should thus never be broken. For example, do not kill. Additionally, the categorical imperative does not take individual situations into account. This means it is applicable to all situations and very straight forward to follow considering that everyone allegedly has the innate knowledge to follow these rules; for example do not steal. However, since it is absolute it means you must ignore any emotional influences on your decisions. Kant’s morals truths are revolved around following reason, not feelings. For example, if you have to choose between saving your grandfather or an unknown baby; the baby should be saved considering it has longer to live and more potential. You must ignore any temptation to save your relative due to your emotional attachment because you know reason does not justify that decision. Unlike the hypothetical imperative, the categorical imperative uses ends not means so is non-consequentialist. Therefore, it is wrong to use someone or something to achieve a certain outcome. For example, to be kind to my mum simply so she gives me money to go shopping. Kant would object to this instance in that you should be kind to your mother since it is your duty to respect your parents and be a kind person. Kant believed in a kingdom of ends. This idea is if everyone followed universalisation we would all be treated with equal respect. Furthermore, the Kantian theory is based upon the concept that good will joined with duty accounts an action as good. â€Å"It is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world which can be taken as good without qualification except a good will†. Thus good will, to â€Å"act for the sake of duty†, should a priority in your actions in order to fulfil your purpose not for external motives. This duty is innate within every person as a priori so an individual’s experiences, or lack of, cannot justify an action which does not follow good will. Kant believed numerous qualities for example, courage, intelligence, ambition and honour all to make a situation morally poorer. Kant also introduces the idea of the Summun Bonum. This is derived from Kant’s postulates of practical reason; aspects that are necessary within his theory for it to work. Firstly we must have freedom in order to use the innate knowledge we attain to follow duty and good will to achieve good. The Summun Bonum is the ultimate goal for everyone to aim to achieve in order to accomplish the ultimate reward. This reward points towards the existence of a God since one can only attain Summun Bonum in the afterlife; it is not achievable on earth. This means someone must be in the afterlife to give reward you what you deserve. Furthermore, this makes sense of the inequality in life. For example, paedophiles living happier lives than charity workers. Kant would say your good will must be repaid in the afterlife. b) â€Å"Kant’s ethical theory has no serious weaknesses† (Jan 09) Kan? an moral ethics is an absolute, non-consequen? alist, deontological theory proposed by Immanuel Kant. It is divided into two categories; hypothe? cal impera? ve and categorical impera? ve. The hypothe? cal impera? ve is when an act depends upon something else whereas the categorical impera? ve is an independent ac? on. A main weakness to Kant’s ethical theory is the fact that it is revolved around ful#lling your supposed duty. But who decides your duty? And what if you have two conic? ng du? es, for example you to #ght for your country but also to support your family; which do you priori? se? There are no guidelines as to which to priori? se. Furthermore, there are no guidelines how to face not priori? sing your emo? onal a)achment. By not having any considera? on for your feelings, this theory has a massive weakness since you have to be very strong willed to convince yourself Kant is correct. Especially if you were ever actually put that posi? on it seems unrealis? c anyone would chose to apply these rules, for example to save a stranger over their family. However, people may object saying a key strength to Kant’s theory is that it is a simple, absolute theory that by being applicable to all sta? ons is allowing for all people from all backgrounds and circumstances to understand as long as they have ra? onal thinking; according to Kant all human beings have. â€Å"Everyone who is ideally rational will legislate the same universal principles† Pojman (2002:147). Another unavoidable weakness to Kan?an moral ethics is that his universable laws are not applicable to all situa? ons. For example, do not lie. Should we follow that and make someone unnecessarily distressed? Kan? an ethics is not a consequen? alist theory however humans ae naturally compassionate and sensi? ve for a reason. Furthermore, from this we can deduct that your reason might not be the best thing to do. It is not guaranteed since it does not take consequences into considera? on. There are some situa? ons which require consequences to be considered since the outcome is so severe it seems kinder just to break a rule. However in response to this some people may say a prime strength of Kant’s theory is that Kant has a great respect for human beings autonomy. Therefore, a lot of dignity is carried with his theory that we have the ability to use our own ra? onal. In conclusion, Kan? an ethics de#nitely has some serious weaknesses due to the unrealis? c priori? sing of those you don’t have emo? onal connec? ons to, the fact it is not clearly applicable to every situa? on and addi? onally that it is based upon following your ‘duty’ of which is a weak concept itself for reasons explained.

Financing Transport Projects Essay -- essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The role of government in facilitating transport projects is inevitable. But governments are monopolists and largely cannot be trusted with the efficient allocation of resources, not to mention the problem of corruption. So, the less the state is involved the better off everyone is. Transport has gone a full circle. Until the beginning of the 17th century it was largely privately financed. The state took over until the last two decades of the twentieth century. And now there is a revival of the involvement of the private sector in financing infrastructure. Additionally, transport has become a commodity and is securitized, as we shall see. All social (or public) goods carry social costs and bring on negative externalities (such as environmental damage). Embedded in every public good there is a moral hazard - others bear a disproportionate part of the costs while the perpetrators go "free". This is why accurate statistics, forecasting and cost benefit analysis systems are a must. I am not talking only about cost coverage calculations but also about finding ways to impose on the users of transport infrastructure the real costs of their actions. This is known today as "user pays" charging schemes. But to do so, the state needs to know what ARE these costs. This is one way of forcing the private sector to participate in t...

Health and social care unit 1 m1 criteria Essay

In health and social care, there are many legislations, policies and procedures you have to abide by in order to maintain a lawfully and safe run setting. After watching the clip of Holby City, I noticed a few legislations, policies and procedures, being followed and being breached. Policies and procedures in a hospital are put in place in order to promote the health and safety of individuals. When watching the clip, I had noticed that Archie’s step dad was not allowed to enter the operating room or take part in the operation. This is because if in the operating room anything would have happened to Archie, the step dad would have felt at fault. Also he could have felt like Archie’s life was in his hands and would have or could have made a quick reaction mistake, thinking he was doing something extra to help when in reality he could have made things worse. We also see medical staff wearing appropriate clothing to minimise risks of cross contamination. They were wearing, face masks, aprons and head covers. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) When watching the Holby City clip, I noticed that all medical staff were clothed accordingly, when operating on the child (Archie) and whilst preparing medicines and following procedures for the child in their care. Face masks, aprons and head covers were worn, to stop spread of germs, bacteria, illnesses or diseases. PPE is put in place in order to reduce the risks of cross contamination. Security During the Holby City clip, I noticed that all staff were wearing ID badges and that all doors were security coded. In also had noticed that all the patients notes were handled with care and not just left on the side. There was always a member of the medical tam holding on to the notes so that they were not seen by anybody who did not need to have a glimpse of the notes. Legislations, laws, acts and regulations are put in place for all workplaces to abide by lawfully =. They are put into practice to protect all individuals. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) This regulation is put in place to ensure that any substances and chemicals are handled and disposed of correctly. In the Holby City clip, this regulation was breached. We see one of the nurse’s droop and mix up two different types of medications. The nurse did not act on the issue appropriately, which the later led to Archie’s death. The wrong medication was given to the patient, which meant that he was taking a lethal dose of the wrong medication. Medications should have been prepared in a medication dispensary, if the medication was prepared in the dispensary, the risks of the medicines being swapped would have been reduced. She wouldn’t have been as pressured as she was in the clients resting room and wouldn’t have acted in a pressured way. The nurse also didn’t report the incident that occurred. If she reported the incident, she and the other medical staff could have acted accordingly; the medication would have been disposed of appropriately and then prepared again with caution. Then they could have found a way of then reducing the risk of happening again. This was an act of omission that she had committed.

Media Helping in Nation Building

| | |Media | |[pic] | | | |'Media' is the medium of carrying information, education and entertainment to the masses. It is an easier and efficient means of| |communication which plays a key role in the overall development of an economy. In an era where knowledge and facts are the tools| |for economic, political and cultural exchange, presence of the strong and constructive media in a country is important for | |catering to the diverse needs of individuals, society as a whole, small and large business and production houses, various | |research organizations, private sectors as well as the public sectors. Media is a conscience-keeper of the nation and has many | |tasks to perform in our day-to-day lives. It helps the Government to achieve various socioeconomic and political goals; educate | |urban and rural masses; instill a sense of responsibility among the people; as well as provide justice to the needy. It largely | |consists of print media like newspapers, magazines, journals and other publications, etc. as well as electronic media like | |radio, television, internet, etc. With the changing scenario of the world, it has acquired the status of an industry. | |In India, the media and entertainment industry is undergoing remarkable change and is one of the fastest growing sectors. The | |main factors responsible for this are rising per capita/ national income; high economic growth and strong macro-economic | |fundamentals; and democratic set up, good governance as well as law and order position in the country. Specifically, spectacular| |growth of the television industry, new formats for film production and distribution, privatisation and growth of radio, | |gradually liberalising attitude of Government towards the sector, easier access to and for international companies as well as | |advent of digital communication and its technological innovations are the other attributes of the growth of the sector. The | |media industry plays an important role in creating people's awareness about national policies and programmes by providing | |information and education, besides creating healthy business environment in the country. Thus, it helps people to be active | |partners in the nation-building endeavour. | |The  Ministry of Information and Broadcasting  is the nodal authority in India for formulation and administration of the rules, | |regulations and laws relating to media industry. It is involved in catering to the entertainment and intellectual needs of | |various age groups and focusing attention of the masses on issues of national integrity, environmental protection, health care | |and family welfare, eradication of illiteracy as well as issues relating to women, children and weaker sections of the society. | |It plays a significant part in helping the people to have access to free flow of information. It is also responsible for | |international co-operation in the field of mass media, films and broadcasting and interacts with its foreign counterparts on | |behalf of Government of India. The main functions of the Ministry are to:- | |Provide news services through All India Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan (DD) to the people | |Develop the broadcasting and television network as well as promote import and export of films   | |Educate and motivate the people for greater participative involvement in the various developmental activities and programmes of | |the Government   | |Liaise with State Governments and their organisations in the field of information and publicity   | |Organise film festivals and cultural exchanges in the country   | |Administer the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867 in respect of newspapers   | |Disseminate information about India within and outside the country through publications on matters of national importance   | |Use interpersonal communication and traditional folk art forms for information/ publicity campaigns on public interest issues | |Serve as a constant link between the Government and the Press, by acting as a clearing h ouse of official information and | |authentic data pertaining to the Union Government’s plans and programmes. | |The Ministry is divided into the following wings, namely:- | |Information Wing  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ deals with the policy matters, the print media as well as the press and publicity requirements of the | |Government. The media units in this wing re:-   | |Press Information Bureau | |Photo Division   | |Research, Reference and Training Division   | |Publications Division | |Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity | |Directorate of Field Publicity   | |Song and Drama Division   | |Registrar of Newspapers for India   | |Press Council of India   | |Indian Institute of Mass Communication   | |Broadcasting Wing  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ handles matters relating to the electronic media. It formulates policies and frames rules and regulations | |for this sector, which include public service broadcasting, operation of cable television, private television channels, | |F. M. channel, satellite radio, community radio, DTH services, etc. The organizations under this wing include:- | |Electronic Media Monitoring Centre | |The Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) – has been set up with the mandate to organise and entertain people and | |to ensure balanced development of broadcasting on radio and television through agencies like:- (i) All India Radio, and (ii) | |Doordarshan. | |Broadcast Engineering Consultants (India) Limited (BECIL) | |Films Wing  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ handles matters relating to the film sector. Through its various units, it is involved in the production and | |distribution of documentary films required for internal and external publicity, development and promotional activities relating | |to film industries including training, promotion of good cinema, organization of film festivals, import and export regulations, | |etc. This wing has the following media units: | |Films Division | |Central Board of Film Certification   | |National Film Archive of India   | |National Film Development Corporation   | |Film and Television Institute of India   | |Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute   | |Directorate of Film Festivals   | |Children’s Film Society | |Integrated Finance Wing  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ performs important functions of maintaining and monitoring the Accounts of the Ministry, through its | |subordinate office of ‘Chief Controller of Accounts'. | |The media industry has significantly benefited from liberal investment regime in the country. Foreign direct investment (FDI) | |has been permitted in its various segments. FDI upto 100 per cent has now been allowed for print media covering non-news | |publications and FDI (with FII) upto 26 per cent has been allowed for print and electronic media covering news and current | |affairs. However, the news sector has also been opened up for FIIs, NRIs and PIOs. The FDI (including FII) in FM radio | |broadcasting sector has been allowed at 20 per cent. While, FDI and FII upto 49 per cent have been permitted for cable network; | |direct to home (DTH) – (within this limit, FDI component not to exceed 20 per cent); setting up hardware facilities such as | |up-linking, hub (teleports); etc. | |At present, there are 110 million TV households in India, out of which 70 million are cable and satellite homes and rest 40 | |million are served by the public broadcaster, that is, Doordarshan. Similarly, there are 132 million radio sets in the country. | |Further, over the years, the number of private satellite TV channels have grown very fast from 1 TV channel in 2000 to 273 TV | |channels till 31. 12. 2007. The news and current affairs TV channels constitute 58 per cent and non-news and current affairs TV | |channels constitute 42 per cent of total permitted 273 TV channels. The former channels have grown from 1 in 2000 to 158 till | |31. 12. 2007, while latter rose from 0 to 115. | |The Ministry has been making several policy announcements as well as framing guidelines in order to create conducive environment| |for healthy development of various mass media in the country. Some of these are:- | |The formulation of ‘Policy Guidelines for Downlinking of Television Channels' which implies downlinking all satellite television| |channels downlinked / received / transmitted and re-transmitted in India for public viewing. Under it, no person/entity shall | |downlink a channel which has not been registered by the Ministry. Henceforth, all persons/ entities providing Television | |Satellite Broadcasting Services (TV Channels) uplinked from other countries to viewers in India as well as any entity desirous | |of providing such a Television Satellite Broadcasting Service (TV Channel), receivable in India for public viewership, shall be | |required to obtain permission from Ministry, in accordance with the terms and conditions prescribed. The policy guidelines | |enumerates certain eligibility criteria's for applicant company, which are as follows:- | |The entity (applicant company) applying for permission of downlinking a channel, uplinked from abroad, must be a company | |registered in India under the Companies Act, 1956, irrespective of its equity structure, foreign ownership or management | |control; | |The applicant company must have a commercial presence in India with its principal place of business in India;. |It must either own the channel it wants to downlink for public viewing, or must enjoy, for the territory of India, exclusive | |marketing/ distribution rights for the same, inclusive of the rights to the advertising and subscription revenues for the | |channel and must submit adequate proof at the time of application; | |In case the applicant company has exclusive marketing / distribution rights, it should also have the authority to conclude | |contracts on behalf of the channel for advertisements, subscr iption and programme content;   | |The applicant company should have a minimum net worth as prescribed, that is, networth of  Rs. 1. 5 crore for downlinking of one | |channel and  Rs. crore for each additional channel;   | |It must provide names and details of all the Directors of the company as well as key executives such as CEO, CFO and Head of | |Marketing, etc to get their national security clearance; | |It shall furnish technical details such as nomenclature, make, model, name and address of the manufacturers of the | |equipments/instruments to be used for downlinking and distribution, the Block schematic diagram of the downlinking and | |distribution system as well as also demonstrate the facilities for monitoring and storing record for 90 days. |Similarly, the notification of ‘Guidelines for Uplinking from India', wherein the applicant, seeking permission to set up an | |uplinking hub/ teleport or uplink a TV Channel or uplink facility by a News Agency, should b e a company registered in India | |under the Companies Act, 1956. The company shall uplink only those TV channels which are specifically approved or permitted by | |the Ministry. For setting up of uplinking hub/ teleports in applicant company, the foreign equity holding including NRI/OCB/PIO | |should not exceed 49%. The networth requirement varies from  Rs. 1 crore to  Rs. 3 crores for channel capacity one to ten. The | |applicant company, irrespective of its ownership, equity structure or management control, would be eligible to seek permission | |for uplinking a non-News and current affairs TV channel. Networth required for single TV channel is  Rs. 1. 5 crore and  Rs. 1 | |crore for each additional channel. While, for uplinking a news and current affairs TV channel, networth required for single TV | |channel is  Rs. 3 crores and  Rs. 2 crores for each additional TV channel. | |The Ministry has issued ‘Guidelines for Obtaining License for Providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) Broadcasting Service in India', | |wherein DTH service refers to the distribution of multi-channel TV programmes in Ku Band by using a satellite system for | |providing TV signals direct to subscribers premises, without passing through an intermediary such as cable operator. The | |eligibility criteria's in the guidelines include:- | |Applicant Company to be an Indian Company registered under Indian Companies Act, 1956. | |Total foreign equity holding including FDI/NRI/OCB/FII in the applicant company not to exceed 49%. Within the foreign equity, | |the FDI component not to exceed 20%. | |The applicant company must have Indian Management Control with majority representatives on the board as well as the Chief | |Executive of the company being a resident Indian; etc. | |A ‘Policy on expansion of FM Radio Broadcasting Services through Private Agencies (Phase-II)' has also been announced to expand | |FM radio network through private agencies to supplement and complement the efforts of All India Radio. This is to be done by | |operationalising radio stations that provide programmes with local content and relevance, improving the quality of fidelity in | |reception and generation, encouraging participation by local talent and generating employment. There are 21 channels already in | |operation under Phase-I. Out of 337 channels offered for bid in Phase II, Letter of Indent (LOI) has been issued to 245 | |channels, of which all channels have signed the agreements. In all, 178 private FM channels are in operation till date in India | |including the 21 channels of Phase I. | |There is also a ‘Policy for Import of Cinematograph Films and Other Films', wherein import of cinematograph feature films and | |other films (including film on video tape, compact video disc, laser video disc or digital video disc) has been allowed without | |a licence. The importer of the film shall comply with the provisions of all applicable Indian laws governing the distribution | |and exhibition of films, including the requirement of obtaining a certificate of public exhibition prescribed under the | |Cinematograph Act 1952. Under it, import of any unauthorized/pirated films shall be prohibited. Import of foreign reprints of | |Indian films shall not be permitted without the prior permission in writing from the Ministry. | |'Draft Broadcasting Services Regulation Bill, 2007†² has been announced to promote, facilitate and develop in an orderly manner | |the carriage and content of broadcasting. For the purpose, it aims to provide for the establishment of an independent authority | |to be known as the Broadcast Regulatory Authority of India as well as encourage broadcasting services to be responsive for the | |educational, developmental, social, cultural and other needs and aspirations of people and include in their programming public | |service messaging and content; etc. | |As a result of all such incentives, the media industry in India has shown considerable growth over the years, with almost | |double-digit growth. It is projected to grow from an estimated size of  Rs. 437 billion to  Rs. 1 trillion by 2011. It provides | |ample opportunities for investors the world over, brings in more capital inflow into the country and presents significant | |avenues for both direct and indirect employment. It helps in shaping people's views and outlooks about various national and | |international issues and thus helps in formulation of schemes, policies and programmes. It is a powerful medium for providing | |entertainment, disseminating information, nurturing and cultivating diverse opinions, educating and empowering the people of | |India to be informed citizens so as to effectively participate in the democratic process; as well as preserving, promoting and | |projecting the diversity of Indian culture and talent of the country. | Mass Communication IN a country like ours, mass communication plays a vital role in creating people’s awareness about policies and programmes of development. It helps in motivating them to be active partners in the nation-building endeavour. A skillful synthesis between traditional and folk forms of communication on the one hand and modern audio-visual media including Satellite Communication on the other, is being attempted. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting being the nodal organisation in this field has a comprehensive set-up of its mass media units with their regional and branch offices as well as mobile units. ELECTRONIC MEDIA AKASHVANI Broadcasting started in India in 1927 with two privately-owned transmitters at Bombay and Calcutta. The Government took over the transmitters in 1930 and started operating them under the name of Indian Broadcasting Service. It was changed to All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and later it also came to e known as Akashvani from 1957. AIR is serving as an effective medium to inform and educate people besides providing healthy entertainment. NETWORK At the time of Independence there were six radio stations. All India Radio presently has 197 radio stations including 184 full-fledged stations, ten relay centres, and three exclusive Vividh Bharati commercial centres. AIR presently has 305 transmitters. These include 145 medium-wave, 55 short-wave and 105 FM transmitters and provide radio coverage to a population of 97. 3 per cent spread over 90 per cent area of the country. MUSIC Music constitutes 40 per cent of the total programmes broadcast over AIR omprising classical, light, folk, film and music in the regional languages. National Programme of Music (Hindustani and Karnatic) are the prestigious programmes broadcast on every Saturday and Sunday. These programmes are broadcast live from the four metros. Keeping in view the Centenary celebration of eminent artists of music, viz. , Pt. Onkar Nath, Musari Subramanya Iyer and Dr Doraiswami Aiyengar, special programmes have been broadcast in the National Programme of Music. Akashvani Sangeet Sammelan – an annual affair is another musical treat to serious classical music listeners and lovers. About 50 concerts of both Karnatic and Hindustani ere featured at different places and the recordings were broadcast for over a month. AIR Music competitions is another regular feature towards searching new talents amongst youngsters. The competitions are held in different categories like classical (Hindustani and Karnatic both) instrumental, light for boys and girls. During 1998, music competitions were held at different stations of AIR in which 111 candidates participated and eight won the prizes. VIVIDH BHARATI AND COMMERCIAL BROADCASTING SERVICE Commercials were introduced on All India Radio from 1 November 1967 on Vividh Bharati. Now all the Primary Channel Stations, 30 Vividh Bharati entres, all Local Radio Stations and four FM Metro channels are taking Commercials. Commercials are also allowed over National Channel, New Delhi and the North-Eastern Service, Shillong. Vividh Bharati Service provides entertainment for more than 14 hours a day from 34 centres. The revenue earned by radio during 1 998-99 was Rs 92. 26 crore. Some innovative commercial broadcasting was introduced by AIR during 1998-99. AIR took over all the slots on 4 metro FM channels with effect from 26 June 1998 which were earlier allotted to private parties. At present all the 4 metro FM channels are being run by All India Radio through in-house programmes. AIR was able to market all the available ommercial time during the broadcast of 1998 Parliamentary elections results for about 72 hours. AIR also did the marketing of World Cup Cricket, 1999 through its own in-house arrangement. Efforts are being made to undertake extensive marketing of air time on all the channels of AIR. DRAMA More than 80 stations of AIR broadcast plays in various languages. Radio adaptations of outstanding novels, short stories and stage plays are also broadcast. Besides original plays, a large number of stations regularly broadcast family drama with a view to eradicate social evils. The National Programmes of plays is broadcast on every fourth Thursday of the month n Hindi and its regional versions are broadcast by relevant stations simultaneously. Special model plays of 30 minutes duration are produced at the Central Drama Unit at Delhi, which are broadcast by 33 stations of AIR in a chain of six months. All India Competition for Radio Playwrights is being organised in 15 major languages. All the prize-winning entries are translated in Hindi and then circulated to all stations for further translation and production in various languages. NEWS SERVICES DIVISION The News Services Division (NSD) of All India Radio disseminates news and comments to listeners in India and abroad. The history of news broadcasting in India is much older than that of All India Radio. The first ews bulletin went on the air from the Bombay station on 23 July 1927 under a private company, the Indian Broadcasting Company. The News Wing of All India Radio came into existence ten years later in August 1937. From 27 bulletins in 1939-40, AI R now puts out 314 bulletins daily withMass Communication a total duration of 39 hours and 29 minutes. Out of these, 88 bulletins are broadcast in the Home Services from Delhi with a duration of 12 hours and 05 minutes, while 42 Regional News Units originate 137 news bulletins daily with a duration of 18 hours and 01 minute. In the External Services, AIR broadcasts 65 bulletins for 8 hours and 59 minutes in 24 languages (Indian and foreign). The News Services Division has been putting out news headlines bulletins on the FM Channel since 28 May 1995. These are now available round-the-clock. AIR News on phone was introduced on 25 February 1998. The service provides the latest news highlights in Hindi and English on phone on dialing the specified numbers. AIR is now available on the Internet. AIR broadcasts special bulletins such as sports news, slow-speed bulletins and youth bulletins. Two youth bulletins are broadcast from Delhi in English and Hindi. AIR, Calcutta also broadcasts two youth bulletins in Bengali. During the Haj period, a five-minute Haj bulletin is aired from Delhi daily for the benefit of the pilgrims. Comments from the Press’ are broadcast every day. In addition, NSD puts out a number of news-based programmes and commentaries in English and Hindi. During Parliament Sessions, commentaries in Hindi and English reviewing the day’s proceedings in both Houses, are broadcast. Similarly, the RNUs p ut out reviews of the proceedings of their respective State Legislatures. The bulk of AIR news comes from its own correspondents spread all over the country. It has 90 regular correspondents in India and seven abroad at Colombo, Dhaka, Dubai, Pretoria, Kathmandu, Singapore and Islamabad. Apart from this, AIR has 246 part-time correspondents based at important istrict headquarters. AIR subscribes to the news agencies – UNI, PTI and their corresponding Hindi services – Univarta and Bhasha, and ANI to supplement its news sources. Other sources of news are the monitored reports from Monitoring Units (English and Hindi) attached to the General News Room and the Central Monitoring Services, which monitor the bulletins of major broadcasting organisations of the world. EXTERNAL SERVICES DIVISION The External Services Division (ESD) broadcasts programmes for about 70 hours a day in 25 languages (16 foreign languages and nine Indian languages) for listeners in different parts of the globe. The broadcast project the Indian oint of view on World Affairs through daily commentary and Press reviews and acquaint the overseas listeners with the developments in India along with information on the myriad facets of Indian life. The target areas of ESD span almost all the continents and include areas of East, North-East and South-East Asia, West, North-West and East Africa, Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Europe and the Indian sub-continent. The services in Hindi, Tamil, Telugu and Gujarati are directed to Indians overseas, while those in Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi and Sindhi are meant for the listeners in the sub-continent and the bordering countries. During the year, due coverage was given to all conferences, seminars, ymposia and festivals of films and trade of National and InternationalMass Communication importance in the form of Radio reports and interviews besides, the visits of foreign dignitaries to India and of Indian dignitaries abroad. Special initiati ves were taken to give wide publicity to India’s geo-political compulsion for a nuclear and Agni-II test in view of the security environment in her immediate neighbourhood. ESD transmitters, also carry the 9 P. M. National bulletin in English, originally meant for Home Services. External Services Division continues to supply recordings of music, spoken word and other programmes to about hundred countries and foreign roadcasting organisations, under the Programme Exchange scheme. Introduction of internet broadcasting by AIR has enabled its listeners in various parts of the world like USA, Canada, West and South Africa to avail of AIR’s services on Internet. NATIONAL CHANNEL The National Channel was inaugurated on the 18 May 1988 and is located at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, New Delhi. Presently, it works as a night service covering over 76 per cent of the population of the country and provides a judicious blend of information and entertainment. Having the whole of Ind ia as its zone, it draws the best available talent in the country. The programme complexion of the Channel has been designed to make it epresentative of the cultural mosaic and ethos of the nation as a whole. Programmes entitled Ek Kahani – dramatization of selected best short stories from regional languages and Basti Basti – Nagar Nagar to familiarise the people of other states with various tourist spots all over the country are being broadcast. Hourly news-bulletins, alternatively in Hindi and English, are broadcast from the National Channel throughout the night. Whenever the Parliament is in session, National Channel broadcasts recordings of the question hour for the benefit of the listeners. Sahargahi, a special early morning programme is broadcast from the National Channel in the holy month of Ramzan. CENTRAL MONITORING SERVICE The Central Monitoring Service (CMS) monitors news and news-based programmes of foreign radio and television networks. It also feeds the Newsrooms of AIR and Doordarshan with news flashes. During the year, the CMS on an average monitored about 100 broadcasts and 38 telecasts from 15 radio and three television networks every day in eight languages including one foreign language. The organisation brought out a report everyday containing all the material monitored on that day. Besides, the CMS brought out two weekly reports, a weekly analytical report giving an analysis of the important news of the week and a weekly special report on Kashmir ased on the anti-India propaganda of Pakistan’s radio and television networks on the Kashmir issue. The CMS has two field units—one at Jammu and the other in Calcutta. TRANSCRIPTION AND PROGRAMME EXCHANGE SERVICE Transcription and Programme Exchange Service (T&PES) consists of Sound Archives, Transcription Un it, Programme Exchange Unit, Foreign ProgrammeMass Communication Unit and Satellite Transmission Unit. The AIR archives store about 47,000 tapes of various formats which inlcude vocal and instrumental music of both Hindustani and Karnatic styles; light, folk, tribal and patriotic music of different regions and also orchestral compositions. Besides, the Archives has he voice recordings of distinguished personalities like Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindra Nath Tagore, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr B. R. Ambedkar, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Aruna Asaf Ali and many others. Apart from this, the speeches delivered by all the Presidents and the Prime Ministers are also preserved in the Archives. Recordings from the Archives are now being transferred to compact discs which will replace the tapes now being used. So far, 235 CDs of spoken word and music have been prepared. This year the Archives has helped prepare a CD/Cassette consisting of v oice recordings of Rabindranath Tagore and a ocumentary on Rabindranath Tagore produced by Satyajit Ray. This along with a monograph on Tagore which has been jointly produced by AIR and Vishwa Bharati, has been released by the Prime Minister in Calcutta on 20 May 1999. Project on Data Entry updating tapes of PMs and Presidents has been completed and work on Hindustani and Karnatic music is in progress. It has added to its collection 125 tapes which include, among others, the radio autobiography of Shiv Mangal Singh ‘Suman’ and Milkha Singh. The Programme Exchange Unit (PEU) exchanges good quality programmes among the AIR stations as per their requirements in its library. Approximately 8,000 tapes containing the recordings of music and spoken ord programmes are preserved, among them are the Ramcharit Manas Gaan and award winning programmes of Akashvani Annual Awards and the language lessons in Bengali, English, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Sanskrit, Tami l and Telugu. A bi-monthly bulletin Vinimaya is published from T&PES giving details of available foreign programmes, Karnatic and Hindustani music (vocal and instrumental) and other forms of musical programmes, viz. , orchestral compositions, stage songs, folk and tribal music, etc. , and spokenword programmes, i. e. , features, plays, talks, opera and interviews, etc. , for circulation among the AIR stations. It also gives daily information regarding ur satellite transmission to meet the requirements of the stations. Transcription unit procures from AIR stations and News Services Division, all the speeches delivered by the President and the Prime Minister in different parts of the country and abroad. The unit received 117 such speeches delivered from January to November 1998. Central Tape Bank (CTB) looks after the needs of AIR stations for exchanging good programmes among the stations. CTB has 76,000 number of tapes circulated among 194 AIR stations. The Foreign Programme Unit pro cures the best of the programme material from different countries for All India Radio. During 1998 the foreign nit of T&PES received 438 programmes from SAARC Secretariat, France,Mass Communication Germany, Bulgaria, World Radio, Beijing, Sweden, Australia, United Nations. These programmes are screened and circulated to stations in Audio magnetic tapes and through INSAT 2C and INSAT 2C 3. T&PES has a satellite transmission on RN Channels of INSAT-1D and RN Channels of INSAT-2A. A total of 500 programmes transmitted through these channels were recorded by different AIR stations for future use. FARM AND HOME PROGRAMMES Farm and Home units function at various stations of AIR. The average duration of farm and home broadcasts is 60-100 minutes per day from each station. The broadcasts also include programmes for rural women and rural children. Broadcast of mother and child care series in collaboration with UNICEF and State governments has been undertaken by many AIR stations. The main thrust has been on issues relating to rights of the child, gender bias and child abuse, etc. Environmental Protection programmes receive adequate emphasis in these broadcast to retain ecological balance. â€Å"Farm school on air† as a method of communicating distant education on farming has been adopted by many AIR stations. Besides imparting technical and other information, the thrust of the broadcasts are : (i) dissemination of information relating to ways and means for increasing roduction of cereals, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, fruits, etc. ; (ii) diversification of agriculture, social forestry, preservation of environment and farm forestry; (iii) poverty alleviation schemes, health and sanitation, etc. ; (iv) adult education programmes and (v) role of pan chayats in rural development. The programmes also lay emphasis on the various economic measures taken by the Government, aimed at rural development. FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES AIR Stations broadcast more than 10,000 programmes on Family Welfare every month in all the major languages/dialects of our country. Programmes on AIDS, TB, Dengue, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, water borne diseases, alaria eradication programme, child survival and safe motherhood programme, sterilization, vasectomy, tubectomy, etc. , are broadcast under the title of family welfare programmes. Success stories are also broadcast regularly. SPORTS During 1998-99, AIR provided extensive coverage to the National and International Sporting events held in India and abroad. Major international events covered were the World Cup Hockey Tournament at Utrecht, Asian Games at Bangkok, Commonwealth Games at Kuala Lumpur, World Cup Cricket Tournament in the UK and the Wimbledon Tennis Championship in London. AIR also encour ages traditional games like Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, etc. , hrough broadcast or running commentary in order to popularise them among the youth of the country and to foster sports talents in the domain of traditional sports and games. Mass Communication AKASHVANI ANNUAL AWARDS All India Radio presents Akashvani Annual Awards to outstanding broadcasts for every calendar year in different disciplines and subjects. Special prizes, Lassa Kaul Awards on National Integration and ‘Correspondent of the Year’ for excellence in News Reporting are also awarded. There is also an award for a special topic documentary. This year’s subject is ‘Senior Citizen’. An award at national level is given to the Best Choral Singing Group (Senior nd Junior Groups) for a competition held for children at various regional centres. An award for â€Å"Audience Research/Survey Reports† has also been introduced from 1995. AIR also awards the Best Commercial Broadcasting Service Centr e and awards for Technical Excellence. DOORDARSHAN Doordarshan, the national televison service of India devoted to public service broadcasting is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world. The flagship of Doordarshan—DD-1—operates through a network of 984 terrestrial transmitters of varying powers reaching over 87 per cent of the population. There are 57 additional transmitters giving terrestrial support to other channels. Doordarshan uses a large number of transponders on he Indian National Satellites (INSAT) and other satellites to network its terrestrial transmitters and also to extend coverage. The signals of Doordarshan’s International service could be received in most part of the globe. Doordarshan has established programme production facilities in 46 cities across the country. Doordarshan programmes are watched in India by 360 million viewers in their homes. Doordarshan earned around Rs 4 billion during the financial year 1998-99 through commer cial advertisements. THE EARLY YEARS The first telecast originated from a makeshift studio in the Akashvani Bhavan, New Delhi on 15 September 1959. A transmitter of 500 W power arried the signals within a radius of 25 km from Delhi. The regular service with a News bulletin was started in 1965. Television went to a second city, Mumbai, only in 1972, and by 1975 Calcutta, Chennai, Srinagar, Amritsar and Lucknow also had television stations. SITE The first experiment with satellite technology in India, known as the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), was conducted in 1975-76. This was, incidentally, the first attempt anywhere in the world of using the sophisticated technology of satellite broadcasting for social education. The year 1982 witnessed the introduction of a regular satellite link between Delhi nd other transmitters, the starting of national programme and the era of colour television in the country. The Asian Games held in Delhi that year acted as the major impetus for bringing out these changes within a short period. After 1992, television facilities have been rapidly expanding and during certain periods the country got an additional transmitter every day. In theMass Communication decade 1981-90, the number of transmitters increased from 19 to 519. THREE-TIER SERVICE Doordarshan has a three-tier primary programme service—national, regional and local. In the national programmes the focus is on the events and issues of interest to the whole nation. These programmes include news, current ffairs, science, cultural magazines, documentaries, serials, music, dance, drama and feature films. The regional programmes originating from the State capitals and relayed by all transmitters in the respective State telecast programmes of interest at the State level, in the language and idiom of that particular region. The local programmes are area-specific and cover local issues featuring local people. INFORMATION PROGRAMMES On the National Netwo rk news bulletins are telecast in Hindi and English at regular intervals. All the major Kendras telecast news bulletins in the evenings in their respective languages where the regional events are covered in greater detail. Some Kendras telecast regional news in Urdu also. Doordarshan has a number of programmes on current affairs where topical issues are discussed in-depth, bringing out the various viewpoints. Information programmes also include telecast on agriculture, rural development, health, family welfare, consumer’s rights, environment, etc. There are programmes specially targeted for women, children and youth. Doordarshan brings to its viewers all the major national and international sports and games through live telecast. There are other programmes on sports, including interviews with eminent sports persons, sports education, etc. Doordarshan also has an exclusive sports channel. EDUCATIONAL TV The educational programmes are at different levels ranging from basic health education for the not-so-well-educated to the higher education programmes for university students. In 1961 India’s first school television service was commissioned at Delhi for the institutions run by the Delhi Municipal Corporation. ETV programmes for school children are telecast from a number of regional Kendras in different languages covering both formal and informal education. The software for these programmes are produced by the Central Institute for Education Technology in Delhi and State Institutes of Education Technology of different Centres. To put quality education within the reach of students residing even n small villages and towns, the University Grants Commission, has a countrywide classroom telecast on the national network. Besides this, syllabus-based programmes for the students of Indira Gandhi National Open University are also being telecast on the national network. ENTERTAINMENT The entertainment programmes include music, dance, plays and serials. Mass Communication Feature films and programmes based on excerpts from feature films are also telecast on the national network and from the regional kendras. METRO CHANNEL In 1984 a second channel was added in Delhi to provide an alternative viewing to the heterogeneous metropolitan population. Later, similar acilities were provided to viewers in Mumbai, Calcutta and Chennai. In 1993 these four terrestrial transmitters were linked through satellite to provide an exclusive entertainment channel for the urban audience. This service, known as DD-2 Metro Entertainment Channel, is now available terrestrially in 54 cities. In other parts of the country the programmes of this channel could be received through dish antennas or through cable operators. The metro channel targets the younger viewers in urban areas. REGIONAL LANGUAGE CHANNELS To provide additional software in the major languages of the country, some of which are spoken by more than 50 million people, Doordarshan has 11 regional language satellite channels. The programmes on these channels include the regional service, which is available terrestrially in the concerned state and additional programmes which could be received in the satellite mode. These programmes are carried on the INSAT satellite which has footprint over the entire country and the regional language programmes could be watched by people irrespective of their place of residence. INTERNATIONAL CHANNEL Doordarshan-India, the international channel, is in operation from 1995 and reaches about 50 countries in Asia, Africa and Europe through PAS-1 and USA and Canada through PAS-4 and PAS-1 satellite. It is presently on the air for 19 hours each day. AUDIENCE RESEARCH The Audience Research Unit of Doordarshan, manned by professional researchers, is involved in studies on the various aspects of broadcasting. It also operates a system of getting ratings on Doordarshan programmes each week. Audience Research is also monitoring the voluntary feedback from viewers and maintains Data Banks at the national and kendra level. VIEWERSHIP Over the years Doordarshan’s viewership has increased phenomenally and now an estimated 69 million homes have televisioin sets which mean that 362 million people can watch Doordarshan programmes in their homes. Community TV sets have been established under various schemes operated by Central and State governments. In rural areas most of the privately-owned sets also act as community sets, attracting a number of viewers from nonTV homes and the total number who watch Doordarshan at least once in a week exceeds 500 million. In the last four years programmes of commercial channels operating from outside India are available for some sections of the population, but Doordarshan has retained more than 70 per cent of the totalMass Communication viewership in urban areas and more than 90 per cent of the viewership in the rural areas in most of the States. PRASAR BHARATI All India Radio and Doordarshan functioned as departments under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. There were persistent demands that the electronic media should be free from Government control and they should have autonomy in their functioning. The Parliament had passed an Act to give autonomy to the media in 1990 itself, but at that time the Act was not notified. In 1997 the Government decided to notify this Act and Prasar Bharati, the autonomous Broadcasting Corporation of India, came into existence on 23 November 1997. A Board consisting of a chairman, an executive member and a number of part-time, full-time, ex-officio and elected members is to manage the affairs of Prasar Bharati. There is also to be a representative of the Government of India on the Board. PRESS AND PRINT MEDIA REGISTRAR OF NEWSPAPERS FOR INDIA Registrar of Newspapers for India (RNI), commonly known as Press Registrar came into being on 1 July 1956. Besides, the statutory functions, the Registrar recommends import of printing machinery and allied materials for newspapers. The duties and functions of the Press Registrar are defined in the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867 and rules made thereunder as amended from time to time. As on 31 December 1998, the total number of newspapers and periodicals was 43,828 as compared to 41,705 in 1997. There were 4,890 dailies, 331 tri/bi-weeklies,15,645 weeklies, 12,065 monthlies, 5,913 fortnightlies, ,127 quarterlies, 383 annuals and 1,474 publications with periodicities like bi-monthlies, half-yearlies, etc. Newspapers were published in as many as 100 languages and dialects during 1998. Apart from English and 18 principal languages enumerated in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, newspapers were published in 81 other languages, mostly Indian languages or dialects and a few foreign languages. The highest number of newspapers were published in the Hindi language. Daily newspapers were brought out in 18 principal languages and Kashmiri was the only principal language that did not have a daily newspaper. Newspapers were published from all States and Union Territories. Uttar Pradesh with 7,895 newspapers retained the prestigious position of publishing the largest number of newspapers in India. In the case of dailies also, Uttar Pradesh held the top position with 805 dailies. Bombay Samachar a Gujarati daily published from Mumbai is the oldest existing newspaper. In 1998, the total circulation of Indian Press was 12,68,49,500 copies. The Anand Bazar Patrika, Bengali daily from Calcutta with a circulation of 5,86,637 copies was the largest circulated single edition newspaper. The Times of India, an English daily from Mumbai which had a circulation of 5,66,378 copies stood second. Hindustan Times, English Daily from Delhi with aMass Communication irculation of 5,55,911 copies occupied third position. The Times of India having six editions in English with a circulation of 13,90,827 copies occupied first position among multi-edition dailies during 1998. The Malayala Manorama published with eight editions in Malayalam with a total combined circulation of 11,23 ,745 copies stood second. Gujarat Samachar with five editions in Gujarati occupied third position with a total circulation of 8,59,015 copies. Among periodicals, Malayala Manorama, a Malayalam weekly published from Kottayam was the largest circulated periodical with 11,58,108 copies. Saras Salil, Hindi Fortnightly from Delhi with a circulation of 9,32,753 copies ccupied the second position. TABLE 11. 1 : NUMBER OF NEWSPAPERS IN 1998 (LANGUAGE AND PERIODICITY-WISE) Languages Dailies Tri/Bi- Weeklies Fort- Monthlies Quarterlies Bi-monthlies Annuals Total weeklies nightlies Halfyearlies English 353 29 835 635 2,606 1,172 734 153 6,517 Hindi 2,202 125 9,062 2,741 2,960 544 173 29 17,836 Assamese 14 3 73 38 57 12 10 1 208 Bengali 96 14 580 463 661 441 156 14 2,425 Gujarati 106 8 565 161 455 57 43 13 1,408 Kannada 290 6 337 217 542 43 17 3 1,455 Kashmiri 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Konkani 1 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 6 Malayalam 208 5 167 152 712 54 23 8 1,329 Manipuri 12 0 6 5 9 6 3 0 41 Marathi 302 20 870 16 1 451 100 39 103 2,046 Nepali 3 2 14 6 8 16 5 0 54 Oriya 68 2 132 81 260 85 23 4 655 Punjabi 106 15 332 83 231 31 18 1 817 Sanskrit 3 0 8 4 16 13 6 0 50 Sindhi 10 0 35 11 35 8 2 0 101 Tamil 344 43 391 220 717 27 20 7 1,769 Telugu 129 3 236 178 453 24 10 2 1,035 Urdu 509 20 1,290 356 496 56 15 3 2,745 Bilingual 65 19 534 311 1,082 327 135 31 2,504 Multilingual 15 4 92 60 197 64 31 11 474 Others 54 13 82 29 116 47 11 0 352 Total 4,890 331 15,645 5,913 12,065 3,127 1,474 383 43,828 PRESS INFORMATION BUREAU The Press Information Bureau (PIB) is the nodal agency of the GovernmentMass Communication to disseminate information to the print and electronic media on government olicies, programmes, initiatives and achievements. Functioning as an interface between the Government and the media, the PIB also provides feedback to the Government with people’s reaction as reflected in the media. With its eight Regional Offices and 32 Branch Offices and Information Centres, the PIB disseminates information through dif ferent modes of communications, such as press releases, press notes, feature articles, backgrounders, press briefings, interviews, press conferences and press tours, etc. The information material released in Hindi, Urdu and 13 other regional languages reaches to over 7,000 newspapers and media organisations. The Bureau at headquarters has a team of officers who are exclusively attached to various ministries and departments for the purpose of assisting them in disseminating information to the media. They also provide feedback to their respective ministries and departments. As part of the Special Services, the Feedback Cell in the PIB prepares a daily digest and special digests based on news stories and editorials from national as well as regional dailies and periodicals. The Feature Unit of the Special Services of the Bureau provides backgrounders, updates, features and graphics. These are circulated in the national network and also sent to the Regional and Branch Offices or translation and circulation to the local Press. PIB arranges photo coverage of Government activities and the photographs are supplied to dailies and periodicals published in English and other Indian languages all over the country. During 1998-99, 2,78,485 photographs were supplied to the newspapers and periodicals. Th e PIB is linked with 30 of its Regional and Branch Offices over computer network to facilitate speedy feeding of information. The Bureau has a Home Page on Internet which makes available publicity material such as press releases, features, photos and graphic for international consumption. The PIB internet home page is accessible at website www. nic. in/IndiaImage/PIB. The press releases from the Bureau are also faxed through computers to local newspapers as well as all resident correspondents of the important outstation newspapers. PIB has started photo transmission by computer to its offices. PIB is connected to its 22 regional-centres by video conferencing system. This enables media persons at regional centers to participate in press conferences in New Delhi and also in other parts of the country. PIB provides accreditation facility to media persons so as to make easy access to information from the government sources. 1,006 correspondents and 226 cameramen are accredited with the Bureau’s headquarters. Besides, bout 133 technicians and 56 editors/media critics have also been granted these professional facilities. The Bureau’s eight Regional Offices are located at Mumbai, Chennai, Chandigarh, Calcutta, Lucknow, Guwahati, Bhopal and Hyderabad. All the Regional Offices, Branch Offices and information centres are linked with PIB headqu arters by teleprinter also. A National Press Centre set up in the Press Information Bureau, New Delhi serves as a nerve centre for both nationalMass Communication and international Press. The Centre has all the facilities of international standards like a telecommunication centre, a press conference hall and a cafeteria. NEWS AGENCIES PRESS TRUST OF INDIA India’s largest news agency, Press Trust of India is a non-profit sharing cooperative owned by the country’s newspapers with a mandate to provide efficient and unbiased news to all its subscribers. Founded on 27 August 1947, PTI began functioning from 1 February 1949. PTI offers its news services in the English and Hindi languages. Bhasha is the Hindi language news service of the agency. PTI subscribers include 450 newspapers in India and scores abroad. All major TV/Radio channels in India and several abroad, including BBC in London, receive PTI service. The news services are provided at speeds up to 1,200 bits per second (about 1,400 words per minute) by satellite, data channels and ticker lines. PTI is now on the Internet too and its website address is: http:/ www. ptinews. com. With a staff of over 1,500 including 400 journalists, PTI has over 100 bureaux across the country and foreign correspondents in major cities of the world including Beijing, Bonn, Cairo, Dhaka, Islamabad, London, Moscow, New York and Washington. In addition, about 300 stringers contribute to the news file at home while 20 part-time correspondents bring news from the rest of the world. Besides the English and Hindi language news services, the other services of the agency include the on-line Photo Service, mailer packages of Feature, Mag, Graphics, Science Service, Economic Service and Data India, nd screen-based services as News-scan and Stockscan. PTI has a television wing, PTI -TV, whi ch provide s spot cove rage and make s corporat e documentaries on assignment basis. PTI has arrangements with Reuters and AFP for distribution of their news in India and with the Associated Press for its photo service and international commercial information. PTI is a partner in Asia Pulse International, a Singapore-registered company, formed by PTI and five other Asian media organisations to provide an on-line data bank on economic developments and business opportunities in Asian countries. PTI is also a participant in Asianet, a cooperative arrangement among 12 news agencies f the Asia-Pacific region for distribution of the corporate and government press releases. PTI is a leading partner in the Pool of News Agencies of the NonAligned Countries and the Organisation of Asia-Pacific News Agencies. The agency contributes its news to these two news exchange arrangements and in turn receives news from the other participating members for its use. PTI has just completed 50 years of its operations. The DepartmentMass Communication of Posts brought out a special 15-rupee multi-colour, multi-lingual stamp on PTI to mark its golden jubilee. President K. R. Narayanan released the stamp on 5 March 1999. An other highlight of the celebrations was a 2- ay international seminar on media issues in New Delhi on 12 and 13 March 1999 which was inaugurated by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and attended by a galaxy of media personalities both from India and abroad. UNITED NEWS OF INDIA United News of India (UNI) was registered as a company in 1959 and began its news operations from 21 March 1961. UNI is now one of the largest news agencies in Asia with over 100 bureaux in India and abroad. It has more than 1,000 subscribers in the country and over 30 abroad. Its news service is provided to subscribers in four Gulf countries as well as Mauritius and Bhutan. It has reporters in 400 big and small towns in India. Its orrespondents are located in a number of world capitals also. UNI also has collaboration with a number of foreign news agencies. It has more than 300 journalists working full time and about 400 as stringers. UNI launched a full-fledged Indian language news service Univarta, in Hi ndi in May 1982. A decade later, it launched Urdu Service on teleprinter for the first time in the world. Other teleprinter services of the news agency include UNIFIN, a specialised service for banking, financial and commercial organisations as well as UNISTOCK, a service for stock exchanges and stock brokers. In July 1986, UNI started its television wing which provides news eatures, newsclips and documentaries for Doordarshan and other organisations. Another specialised service run by the news agency is UNISCAN, a news service fed into television sets. A national photo service, started in 1987, is another pioneering venture. UNI also supplies computerdesigned graphics in ready-to-use-form on economic and other topical subjects on a regular basis. NON-ALIGNED NEWS AGENCIES POOL The Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool (NANAP) is an arrangement for exchange of news among the news agencies of non-aligned countries who for long have been victims of imbalances and bias in the flow of news. Th e Pool came into existence in 1976 with India as its first Chairman (1976-79). The Pool is a worldwide operation embracing four continents, viz. , Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America. The Pool news is exchanged in four languages—English, French, Spanish and Arabic. Pool activities are coordinated by an elected body known as the Coordinating Committee with a Chairman as its head. The Chairmanship, is co-terminus with the tenure of the Coordinating Committee and goes by rotation. The Chairman and members of the Coordinating Committee are elected on the basis of regional representation, continuity, active participation and rotation. The Coordinating Committee meets once a year and the meetings are open to all member agencies. Mass Communication Advt. Mass Communication Six General Conferences and 17 meetings of the Coordinating Committee have taken place since the inception of the Pool. The last General Conference of the Pool was held in Tehran in June 1992, when the Iranian news agency IRNA assumed the Chairmanship of the Pool from ANGOP of Angola. The countries elected to the Coordinating Committee in Tehran were India, Indonesia, Vietnam, DPR Korea, Kuwait, Syria, Mongolia, Bahrain, Afghanistan, Lebanon and Oman from Asia; Angola, Algeria, Burkina Faso, Congo, Ethiopia, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia and Zambia from Africa; Yugoslavia from Europe; and Bolivia, Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Surinam and Venezuela from Latin America. At the Tunis General Conference of the Pool in November 1982 a resolution was adopted to form a Monitoring Group, for closer review and monitoring of the Pool operations. The Monitoring Group was last reconstituted in Tehran in 1992 when Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Libya, Zimbabwe, Mexico, Peru, Cuba and Yugoslavia were elected to it. India has played a vital role in the creation and expansion of the Pool. India News Pool Desk is operated by Press Trust of India. The agency receives news copy from Pool Partners and in turn contributes Indian news nto the exchange arrangement on a daily basis. The incoming news traffic from Pool member agencies into PTI is in the range of about 15,000 words per day. PTI’s contribution into the network is about 7,000 words per day. The news is exchanged through a network of statellite/terrestrial/E-mail communication links with Antara (Indonesia) , Bernama (Malaysia), Lankapuvath (Sri Lanka), GNA (Bahrain), VNA (Vietnam), Prensa Latina (Cuba), Tanjug (Yugoslavia), BSS (Bangladesh), RSS (Nepal), MENA (Egypt) and NAMPA (Namibia). Leading national dailies of the country publish between 20 to 30 Pool items a month. As part of the News Pool operation, the Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi, which is recognised as a premier institute for training in journalism in the Non-Aligned countries, has been offering a regular course in News Agency Journalism. The five-month twice a year course is popular with journalists belonging to the member agencies of the Pool. PRESS COUNCIL OF INDIA The Press Council of India has been established under an Act of Parliament for the purpose of preserving the freedom of the press and of maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers and news agencies in India. The Chairman of the Council is by convention, a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Council has 28 members – 20 from the newspaper world, ive are Members of Parliament (three nominated by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and two by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha) and remaining three are nominated by the Sahitya Academy, the Bar Council of India and the University Grants Commission. The Council is reconstituted every three years. The Counc il has its own source or revenue in that it collects levy from the registered newspapers and news agencies. It also receives grantin-aid from the Central Government for performing its functions. Mass Communication As an autonomous quasi-judicial body, the aim of the Press Council is to administer ethics and to inculcate principles of self-regulation among the Press. It also keeps under review any development likely to interfere with the freedom of the Press. The Council discharges its functions primarily through adjudications on complaint cases received by it, either against the Press for violation of journalistic ethics or by the Press for interference with its freedom, where the Council is satisfied during the inquiry that a newspaper or a news agency has offended against the standards of journalistic ethics or public taste or that an editor or working journalist has committed any professional misconduct, the Council may warn, admonish or censure them or disapprove of their conduct. The Council is also mpowered to make such observations as it may think fit in respect of the conduct of any authority, including Government, for interfering with the freedom of the press. The decisions of the Council are final and cannot be questioned in any court of law. During 1998-99, the Press Council of India received 1,213 complaints of which 361 were filed b y the Press and 852 were against the Press. The Council adjudicated 342 cases. 575 cases were dismissed by the Council for lack of sufficient grounds for inquiry. The Council disposed of 917 matters during 1998-99. The Council has also suo moto initiated studies on various matters that had bearing on the freedom of the Press and its standards. During 998-99 the Council prepared a report on â€Å"Right to Privacy of Public Figures and the Press† and formulated guidelines to achieve a balance between the right to privacy of public persons and right of the Press to have access to information of public interest and importance. The Council also prepared a report on Press Coverage of the 12th General Elections on 2 June 1998 which gave an overview as to how the Press covered election news. In its advisory capacity, the Council considered and rendered its opinion to various authorities and organisations in matters relating to Press freedom. The Press Council of India is an active me mber of the World Association of Press Council (WAPC), an umbrella organisation of Press Councils and similar bodies committed to championing the cause of free speech and freedom of responsible Press on international level. The Council organised the 5th International Conference of World Association of Press Councils on 4-5 April 1998 in New Delhi to mark the 50th year of Independence. Approximately 40 representatives of International Media/ Press Organisations of 19 countries attended the Conference apart from 200 distinguished Indian participants. The National Press Day (16 November) celebrations this year were dedicated to the memory of late Nikhil Chakravartty, a renowned journalist ho was also a member of the Council. On 16-17 November 1998 the Council organised a two-day Nikhil Chakravartty Memorial Seminar. The Seminar was also attended by prominent-media representatives from the SAARC countries. The National Press Day celebrations were organised atMass Communication the state/district level by authorities, press organisations and associations throughout the country. RESEARCH REFERENCE AND TRAINING DIVISION The Research, Reference and Training Division (RR&TD) functions as an information servicing agenc